Functionalism and Machine Aesthetic of Modern Architecture

Functionalism and Machine Aesthetic of Modern Architecture Functionalism in Architecture was a movement during the late 19th century and early 20th century was a product of one American architect Louis Henri Sullivan who coined the term form follows function. It was Distinct to have exposed architecture of the existence of ornamentation and therefore aesthetics so that a structure simply expressed its purpose or function. Both in the United States and in Europe, functionalism and machine aesthetics became existent due to the development of the era. During the 1920s and early 1930s in the United States, there was a growing machine-driven culture. The machines influence on art and architecture reflected the machines explosion as a valuable form of aesthetic. Both Functionalism and machine aesthetics held its own influence in modern architecture. The arrival of the machine was to have such revolutionary significance that the following years can legitimately be termed the Machine Age. Among the great number of cultural changes engendered by this new era was the installation of a machine aesthetic in the fields of architecture and design. This was of central importance to the Modern Movement as it provided a means by which its practitioners could engage with what they regarded as the spirit of the age. The machine aesthetic can be distinguished in the work of each major figure of the Modernist pantheon; it therefore conditioned the entire range of Modernist activity. By utilizing these aspects, the ornamentation and unnecessary forms of designs were obliterated and instead replaced by a plainer but functional look. Despite the growing movement of functionalism and machine aesthetics during the early 20th century, there still lie the differences and comparisons between the utilizations, views, and ideas about them from America and Europe. The difference of the two places somehow manifested various approaches towards the topic. The machine was valued for its service. Its aesthetic was promoted by those who saw a beauty in the machine a beauty in appearance and function. The machine aesthetic was assumed by all sorts of objects. The look of the machine was not universally celebrated, yet it was widespread nonetheless Despite this consistency, the reasons why individual Modernists employed the aesthetic varied greatly, and to conclude that they did so only to evoke the current zeitgeist would hardly seem satisfactory. Instead, the aim of this essay is to analyse functionalism and the several uses made of the machine aesthetic in order to determine why it was so central to Modernist theory and practice. Since the particular character of the aesthetic varied according to the nature of the interest in it (e.g. political, economic), the reasons for its use are fundamental to any understanding of Modernism. Firstly, the idea that Modernism embraced the machine aesthetic in order to give concrete form to the spirit of the age, though not the sole motivation behind Modernist movement is valid in itself and deserves to be expounded. The Industrial Revolution precipitated a series of immense changes which can be understood to have genuinely transformed the world. These include industrialisation, the rise of the metropolis, an accompanying decline in ruralise, and rapid technological progress. In being plundered for their natural resources, even Third World countries felt the impact of the new era. For many these changes threatened to create an environment that was both alien and hostile to humanity and nature. In the cultural sphere, the nineteenth-century design reformers John Ruskin and William Morris attacked machine-production for discouragement the craft skills and individuality of the worker. Since the machine took both tradition and individual attempt, it would become impossible for the artist or craftsman to take pride in their work, and the consumer, in turn, would suffer the spiritual disadvantages of no longer living in an environment that had been lovingly crafted. As a neutralizer, Ruskin, Morris and others proposed a return to traditional craft processes and sources of inspiration that were primarily medieval. In other sectors, this reactionary measure was felt to be unrealistically traditionalist. Since the machine was, as Ruskin and Morris had argued, incompetent at matching traditional craft processes and designs, those who recognised that the machine was an beyond doubt reality were aware of the need to evolve a new aesthetic that it was suited to. This would re-establish a high standard of quality in design and ensure that designed goods were adjusted to the age, rather than being hopelessly revivalist. One such figure was Adolph Loos, whose essay Ornament and Crime (1908) argued that applying decoration to a designed product was both inefficient and criminal, because eventually it resulted in the utilization of the craftsman: If I pay as much for a smooth box as for a decorated one, the difference in labour belongs to the worker. Instead, the new aesthetic was to be derived from the new processes of mass production. The result was a simple, essentialist style that was based on geometry (especially the straight line and the right angle3). Geometry became a model, not only because geometrical forms were theoretically easier for the machine to execute, but also because of overtones that Plato, amongst others, had invested it with. In Platos philosophy, geometrical forms were beautiful because they were elements of the eternal and absolute world of ideas that existed beyond material reality. The most concerted attempt to articulate this style was given in an exhibition on Modern Architecture at the Museume of Modern Art in 1932. The International Style: Architecture Since 1922 accompanied the exhibition. Historian Henry-Russell Hitchcock and critic Philip Johnson outlined the principles of the International style: The idea of style as the frame of potential growth, rather than as a fixed and crushing mould, has developed with the recognition of underlying principles such as architects discern in the great styles of the past. The principles are few and broad. . . . There is, first, a new conception of architecture as volume rather than mass. Secondly, regularity rather than axial symmetry serves as the chief means of ordering design. These two principles, with a third proscribing arbitrary applied decoration, mark the productions of the international style.4 Advances in construction techniques and materials allowed for a shift in structural support. Whereas walls were once weight-bearing, and thus massive, support was now given by skeletal infrastuctures. This change provided greater flexibility in window placement; once nothing more than holes cut in a wall, they could now be located virtually anywhere. Thus, proponents of the International style, the architectural equivalent of machine purity, moved windows away from walls centres, lest they suggest traditional construction. Armed with these new possibilities, asymmetrical designs were encouraged, as function in most types of contemporary building is more directly expressed in asymmetrical forms. Ideally, structures were not to be arbitrarily asymmetrical, but it was assumed that the needs of residents and the purposes of different spaces in the buildings would not produce symmetrical designs in fact, arbitrary asymmetry would be a decorative device, and thus an anathema to the Internationalists. Machine purity was a reaction against the ornamentation of previous decades and even the Moderns. Honesty in use and materials was sought functions should not be concealed beneath a covering, and items shouldnt be presented as something they were not. Simplicity and sterility championed the pure white of the hospital and lab. Stucco was an ideal material, as it provided for unbroken, continuous surfaces. Walls were skins, stripped down and allowing for a maximum of interior space. These interior spaces were to be designed individually, matching the needs of the resident, to provide for the amelioration and development of the functions of living.6 Rooms were to be determined by function, and the movement between rooms was to stress the unity and continuity of the whole volume inside a building.7 Book shelves and living plants were the best decorative devices in the home. This appealed to Modernists, whose works and writings revealed a desire to exceed the chaos of temporary solutions and preoccupation with styles that had characterised nineteenth- century design. The aim of Modernism was to achieve the ideal solutions to each design problem in works that would be style less, timeless and possess the same purity and clarity as geometry. Given the widespread belief that the machine symbolised the new century, it was perhaps inevitable that certain Modernists should embrace it entirely for its own sake purely as a metaphor, and with no concern for its practical applications. To some extent at least, this tends to be the case for most canonical Modernists, but this approach is exemplified by the Italian Futurist movement. As this brief analysis indicates, Futurism was primarily a literary and artistic movement. It was characteristic of its paradoxical nature that a movement initiated as a response to the changing environment should possess no means of expression in the art form that most directly conditioned the environment architecture. This was the case until 1914, five years after the publication of the first Manifesto, when Marinetti was finally able to welcome Antonio Sant Elia into the ranks. Sant Elia recognised the metropolis as the environment of the new age, and accordingly pioneered designs that were replete with intimations of the machine aesthetic. His perspectives for La Città   Nuova (1914) emphasise the geometry and verticality of his vision by juxtaposing stepped-back sections with sheer verticals. The interaction of diagonals and verticals this produces invests his works with the same energy and dynamism to be found in exemplary Futurist paintings. In addition, his buildings are frequently surmounted by features resembling industrial chimneys or radio masts (e.g. Casa gradinata con ascensori, 1914), thus making perhaps slightly picturesque use of an iconography derived from machines. Futurisms interest in the machine aesthetic arose from a naà ¯ve and romantic celebration of the machine for its qualities of energy and dynamism. The machine was therefore valued exclusively for the expressive potential it offered. Since they failed to grasp its practical aspects the Futurists neglected to adapt their aesthetic to technological limitations. For this reason Sant Elias designs remained on the drawing board. A deeper engagement with the realities of the machine was demonstrated by those who embraced the concept of functionalism. This idea played a significant role in most forms of Modernist design and theory. The central contention was that the form of an object should be dictated by its function. The Bauhaus, for example, aimed to originate the design of an object from its natural functions and relationships,11 so that they could be used effectively and were rationally related to each other. Of course, the pursuit of functionalism complemented the Modernists aim to arrive at ideal design solutions unless objects fulfilled their purpose they could barely be ideal. This led to the notion that a designed object could be beautiful if, and only if, it functioned perfectly. Function therefore replaced appearance as the prime principle of aesthetic quality. Artistic elaboration was eschewed in favour of clear form that both expressed its purpose and ensured that this purpose was satisfied. Henry-Russell Hitchcock and Philip Johnson, in their discussion of European functionalist architects (i.e. canonical Modernists), wrote that, If a building provides adequately, completely and without compromise for its purpose, it is then a good building, regardless of its appearance.12 Explanation of this somewhat radical view was found in the machine. Since the machines appearance was derived entirely from its function it was both morally and economically admirable, which made it beautiful. Karl Ewalds writing The Beauty of Machines (1925-6) contained the saying, A good modern machine is an object of the highest aesthetic value we are aware of that.13 For evidence of this the Modernists looked to the USA, where an unselfconscious functionalism had been put into practice by pioneers like Samuel Colt and, in particular, Henry Ford. Ford brought the concept of standardisation to his car plant, with results that were seen as almost astonishing. His moving meeting line system, which involved specialised stages of fabrication and identical parts, had enabled him to dramatically increase car production. His success was such that industrialists and manufacturers across the world were adopting these methods. Theoretically, their goods were now readily available and continually depreciating in price, even as profits soared. Paul Greenhalgh has observed that Modernists recognised the need to embrace technology for these reasons of economy and availability. It was the means by which Modernism could be promoted worldwide. In addition, the standardisation advocated by Ford would facilitate rapid construction and maintenance.14 Therefore, the example of Ford and others encouraged the Modernists to view the machine as the absolute ideal of functionalism. This can be confirmed by reference to Le Corbusier. Much of Le Corbusiers manifesto Vers une architecture (1923) is dedicated to promoting the architectural virtues of the machine. His famous declaration, The house is a machine for living in,15 often misunderstood, meant that the guiding principle for architects should be to make the house as well suited to its purpose as was a machine. This reiterated the argument that functionalism was more important than appearance. In order to progress, he believed, it was necessary for architects to abandon the notion of traditional styles and decorative effects: Architecture has nothing to do with the various styles [They are] sometimes pretty, though not always; and never anything more.16 this implies that he saw the aesthetic, not as just another style, but as the very substance of architecture. Instead, he drew parallels between architecture and the Engineers Aesthetic, arguing that engineers were to be praised for their use of functionalism and mathematical order. As a consequence, architect s were encouraged to emulate engineers and adopt these principles in order to attain harmony and logic in their designs. To reinforce this argument the illustrations of Vers une architecture celebrated the functional and architectural unity of Canadian grain stores, ships, aeroplanes and automobiles. From a present day perspective his principles are better illuminated by his architecture, since these illustrations (e.g. the Caproni Triple hydroplane) seem rather old. The Maison Dom-Ino (1915) was an early example of his Engineers Aesthetic: three identical planes are suspended above each other by steel columns, a method of construction that frees the walls of their load-bearing purpose, and allows his concept of the free faà §ade to be introduced. An external staircase communicates between each level, and its location permits an unprecedented space and clarity in the plan. The components were all to be standardised and pre-fabricated, which would allow for rapid construction. This house was therefore a product of Le Corbusiers intention to apply the principles of mechanical mass production to domestic architecture. However, a substantial body of criticism (e.g. Greenhalgh, Sparke) has argued that this functionalism of Modernist theory was not based in reality. The machine aesthetic remained just that, as few of the designs were capable of being standardised. For example, the Grand Comfort chair by Le Corbusier and Charlotte Perriand was neither functional nor standardised. It required no less than eighteen welds and three materials, making it expensive and capable of production only by craftsmanship. Le Corbusiers pavilion LEsprit Nouveau featured door handles supposedly derived from car or aeroplane handles. These were not standardised but had to be made individually. At the Bauhaus, Marianne Brandts tea service (1928/30) embodies the machine aesthetic with its geometrical, angular forms, but, again, these features made it unsuited to machine production. For this reason, virtually no products of Modernism were mass-produced, at least until the style was modified and practised on an international level in what became known as the International Style. For the pioneer phase, mass production remained a metaphor that could not yet be emulated.17 A further dimension which has not yet been discussed is the political function of the machine aesthetic. This was hinted at in Loos belief that it improved the domination of the worker, but here the importance was on the labour-saving potential of the machine. Loos celebrated the aesthetic because, theoretically, it reduced the hours of effort required of the worker by avoiding unnecessary ornament. This line of reasoning even occurs in the theories of the politically unsure Le Corbusier, whose Freehold Maisonettes of 1922 used mechanical applications and good organisation derived from machines to reduce the need for human labour, and thus alleviate the workloads of servants.18 It did not necessarily follow in either case, however, that the machine could serve as an instrument for social liberation. This possibility was not fully explored until the influence of Modernism had spread and produced a diversity of practitioners. To the increasingly machine-orientated Bauhaus Moholy-Nagy imparted his belief that the machine was inextricably linked with socialism because it was an absolute. He wrote: Before the machine, everyone is equal I can use it, so can you . . . There is no tradition in technology, no consciousness of class or standing. Everybody can be the machines master or slave.19 This belief was widespread amongst Modernists, with Theo Van Doesburg being another notable exponent. Van Doesburg praised the machine as a medium of social liberation, and denied that handicraft possessed this capability, since handicraft, under the supremacy of materialism,20 reduced men to the level of machines. But as Charles Jencks has observed, Van Doesburgs enthusiasm for the machine went beyond its labour-saving potential, it was also based upon its universalising, abstract quality.21 In Jencks outline, the machines impersonality enforces equality between its users, which in art would lead to the universal and the abstract. The result would be the realisation of a collective style that was universally valid and comprehensible, based as it was upon the abstract forms of the machine. Paul Greenhalgh suggests that such an internationalism was central to Modernists theory and was an inevitable condition of their quest for a universal human consciousness.22 In order to achieve this, national boundaries had to be disposed of, as well as those between disciplines (such as fine art and design) and political classes. Greenhalgh confirms that the abstract, geometrical aesthetic appealed to Modernists because it could be used as a common language through which different nationalities could arrive at uniform solutions, thereby dissolving national boundaries. In its exclusion per se of language, abstraction was the aesthetic which enabled the ethic, internationalism, to be realised.23 Though he does not use the term, the aesthetic Greenhalgh refers to is that of the machine, since it is derived from and (theoretically) tailored for machine production. I would therefore argue that Modernists associated the aesthetic with internationalism, not only because of its abstract quality, but also because its origins in the machine imbued it with the universal quality that Moholy-Nagy and Van Doesburg recognised in this source. The practical use of the machine aesthetics political function is best illustrated by the Russian Constructivist movement. It is perhaps surprising that an aesthetic originating from the machine the foundation of capitalism could flourish in the political climate following the Communist revolution. Loos idea of the machine as labour-saving device was, of course, central in resolving this dilemma, as was the social liberation and classlessness revealed by Van Doesburg and Moholy-Nagy. Also instrumental, no doubt, was the fact that, in this era, Russia was still largely a rural, peasant country possessing no heavy industry. The negative aspects of the machine would therefore have been less obvious than the myths of its glorious effects. In this climate of rural poverty and political fervour, the machine seemed capable of transforming society, and the aesthetic became the perfect metaphor for revolution and nation-wide progress. Since this made the aesthetic an invaluable resource for Communist propaganda, many of the leading designers were commissioned to create works that mythologized the revolution. Significantly, this situation did not only involve the government manipulating design to its own ends; many of the artists and designers were equally committed to the idea that they could serve the new society. The Constructivist movement was so named because its members saw it as their task to construct the environment for a new society in the same way that engineers constructed bridges and so on.25 Proletkult promoted the unity of science, industry, and art: Vladimir Tatlin, for example, believed design was linked to engineering, and saw the designer as an anonymous worker building for society. Tatlins Monument to the Third International (1919-20) reflects this ethos. This projection for a 400m tall tower (only a scaled-down model was built) clearly represents the union of art and construction its sculptural form of two intertwining spirals and a soaring diagonal component is rendered in a lattice construction suggestive of engineering. As well as resembling a machine, the tower actually functioned as one: it featured four transparent volumes that rotated at different speeds (yearly, monthly, daily and hourly). These were intended to house government offices for legislation, administration, information and cinematic projection. It should be pointed out that none of these reasons for interest in the machine aesthetic were mutually exclusive, and individual Modernists did not adhere to it for any single reason. Each partook, to some extent, of most of them. The enthusiasm of the European Functionalists also involved the political interest observed in Constructivism. At the same time, an element of the Futurists romantic fascination can be detected in the thinking of Le Corbusier, the Bauhaus, and all those for whom mass production remained out of reach. In conclusion, as case after case demonstrates, the Modernists enthusiasm for the machine aesthetic continued to be of an ideological rather than a practical nature. The machine was embraced as an idea by designers who failed to grasp the realities of mass production. Since their aesthetic was therefore inspired by the machine but not adapted to it, in many cases this actually impeded its realisation. This is highlighted by the examples of Futurism, Constructivism and even aspects of the Bauhaus, where numerous schemes could not be put into practice. However, the importance of the machine aesthetic within Modernism should not be underestimated; it was practised so widely, indeed constituted an International Style, precisely because it was deemed to be the ideal and most logical way of realising the central tenets upon which Modernism was founded. These included truth, internationalism, function, atonement with the age, and so on. The belief that the aesthetic was universally valid is reflected by the great variety of uses to which it was applied, such as Utopian, political, economic etc. For this reason it is no exaggeration to say that, for the Modernists, it was not a question of aesthetics at all, but of a Machine Ethic.

Against Concealed Carry Law

The topic of concealed carry is something that a lot of people are talking about. Turn on the news, the radio, read the newspaper, surf the internet and the topic of conceal carry will be discussed. The reason it is so highly discussed is due to the effect that conceal carry will have on everyone regardless of race, age, and socio- economic background. As a resident of Illinois, the most recent state to adopt concealed carry, there continues to be much concern about how it will be monitored and enforced.Will there be an increase in public safety with the adoption of concealed carry or will here be an increase in gun related injuries and fatalities. The research process for this paper consisted of a comprehensive search via internet of Journal articles related to gun control and concealed carry, library database review, newspaper archives, and broadcast media reports. For the Journal articles and the library database review, the key words â€Å"concealed carry' and â€Å"gun control † were utilized.In reviewing the results from the use of the key words, Journal articles were then organized chronologically from oldest to most recent publication date within groups of relevant subject matter. The selected articles were reviewed and pertinent information was noted for use. Since Illinois is the most recent state to adopt the concealed carry law, newspaper archives were examined for articles concerning the issue in the local News Gazette, the Springfield State Journal Register and the Chicago Tribune. Articles written in 2013 discussing the adoption of the law were used to build a timeline covering the process to date.Broadcast media sources were searched for recent broadcasts related to concealed carry and gun control, and for examples of recent gun violence where the assage of concealed carry was proposed as the solution to preventing future incidents or blamed as the reason the incidents occurred. Broadcasts fulfilling these requirements were viewed and use d to provide evidence on both sides of the issue. Finally, websites for groups on both sides of the issue were reviewed for commentary and viewpoints that would greater examine the arguments both for and against concealed carry.The National Rifle Association (NRA) and the Students for Concealed Carry, both national organizations provided the voice for pro concealed carry. To represent those against concealed carry, The National Order of Fraternal olice and FINDINGS The May 2013 online article by Facts on File News Services, takes a closer look at gun control following the violence that broke out in an elementary school taking the lives of children and teachers. It was another senseless shooting that shook the nation and seemed it was the final straw forcing individuals and government offices to increase efforts to tighten gun laws.The second-deadliest mass shooting ever to occur in the United States was the Newton shooting. Only by the 2007 Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State U niversity shooting where a gunman had took 32 lives hootings in the United States to three in 2012. It was reported in December of 2012 that the Obama administration would support a bill to ban assault weapons, as well as consider a ban on high-capacity magazines, preventing the operator of a gun from rapid fire and rapid reload ofa firearm. January 2013, President Obama urged Congress to pass gun control measures requiring background checks and declaring a ban on assault weapon.His message was that background checks would tighten the ability of individuals to purchase weapons from gun shows or from private dealers where background checks were not required. Close control on the sale of military- style semi-automatic guns or ‘assault weapons' was perceived to be a much more difficult process. When put toa vote in front of the senate, Senators voted 54-46 against universal background checks, 54-46 against limits on the size of high-capacity ammunition magazines, and 60-40 agains t a ban on the manufacture and sale of assault weapons in April 2013.In response to the vote, Obama blasted the gun lobbyists of spreading lies about the expansion of the background checks by implying that gun registry would be controlled by government officials. Those on both sides of he aisle, who assumed a Pro-gun control stance for legislation, committed their voice to the pursuit of gun control. In all 50 states, the carrying of a concealed gun is now legal according to an article that appeared on the website ProCon. org in October 2013. Only Washington, D. C. revents concealed carry except for both active and retired law enforcement officers. This article explores both sides of the concealed carry debate. For example, between May 2007 and March 2010 statistics reveal that nine law enforcement officers and 142 non-law enforcement individuals were killed by concealed carry handgun permit olders across the nation. It is also statistically significant to note that the majority of those who legally carry concealed do not abuse their rights and are non-violent.While it may seem obvious that criminals are less likely to attack someone that they believe might be armed, it is also important to emphasize that handguns are not an effective form of self-defense often resulting in injury and death for the individual carrying. A concealed handgun significantly increases the chances of a confrontation escalating in violence to a lethal degree. The risk of suicide is magnified as a vast ajority of all suicide attempts are done in times impulsiveness where not only owning, but carrying a handgun gives an individual a method to act.There are those proponents of concealed carry who will tout the Second Amendment of the U. S. Constitution as a proof that citizens, who are to bear arms for a well-regulated militia, should be entitled to personal carry. Those on the anti concealed side remind us that the Second Amendment provides for bearing arms when there is a need for â₠¬Å"a well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed†. The Constitution does not discuss nor promote concealed handguns for personal protection.Eleven states have â€Å"may issue† laws which give law enforcement discretion in issuing permits. In a February 26, 2013 newspaper article written by Tom Kachich, State Representatives from Illinois approved a number of amendments to pass the concealed-carry law which would allow Illinoisans to carry weapons in public; however they would need to meet certain requirements that needed to be completed concealed-carry, legislation stated that Illinois was going to be a â€Å"shall state†, meaning that larger numbers of citizens would be able to acquire permits.The catch to obtaining a permit is eight hours of training including live-fire training, and would need to undergo a criminal history background check. In order to get a permit , the individual would have to pay an eighty dollar fee for a five-year permit. Representative Brandon Phelps elaborated â€Å"that there would be no limitation on the number of weapons a permit-holder could carry, but that the bill is more restrictive than we ever wanted it to be. † A weapon may not be carried in schools, child care facilities, local government buildings, libraries, stadiums, places of worship, casinos, and is even restricted on mass transit.Phelps' amendment would also not permit for those on campuses of colleges and universities to carry a firearm. State Representative, Naomi Jakobsson, proposed another amendment which was approved by the House which stated that firearms should be restricted in hospitals and mental health facilities. Karen Farkas wrote an article in the September 2013 edition of the Cleveland News about concealed carry on college campuses. Of the 1,649 students surveyed at fifteen public colleges in the Midwest, 78% reported that they did not support the carrying of handguns on college campuses.Most students reported that not only ould they not feel safer on campus; they were concerned about the potential for an increased risk of suicides and homicides. Ohio is a part of 49 states that have concealed carry weapons laws and one of 22 states that ban carrying a concealed weapon on a college campus. â€Å"l think for the majority of people this (concealed handguns) is not on their radar screen because it is so absurd,† said Amy Thompson, who is a professor in the department of public health at the University of Toledo who led the study. Why bring guns into the learning environment? When I talk to my students (about concealed carry) they say ‘Are you kidding me? I don't want a kid sitting next to me in class with a backpack with a gun in it. † Thompson, who is a part of a team of researchers, conducted a survey with the faculty and university presidents to see who supported the concealed carry and who didn't. â€Å"As a public health professor I wanted to look at who is pushing this and is it something that really, truly everyone wants,† she said.College students need to be aware of the value of a concealed carry weapon because a college campus is no different than a small city. Kurt Mueller, who is the organization's public relations director said, â€Å"The survey aid that most students believed that allowing concealed carry would increase the risks of suicides and homicides, and if you wanted to commit a homicide with a firearm you don't need a carry a permit to do it because they aren't worried about violation of the firearms law. Thompson said that a survivor of the Virginia Tech shootings who was shot four times spoke on her campus and said even if he had been armed he wouldn't have been able to do anything and would have been more likely to be killed. And Thompson says, â€Å"There is tons of research that will back that up. The study that she instructed also foun d that about 16 percent of undergraduate students own a firearm and 20 percent witnessed a crime on their campus that involved firearms; about 66 percent felt that if they carried gun it would make them less likely to be bothered by others. eapons on college campuses, and five other states put forth bills that would prohibit concealed weapons on campuses. Even though the legislation was pushing for weapons, studies suggest that a large number of college students did not support allowing concealed weapons while attending school. 78% of the students, who were urveyed at 1 5 different Midwestern colleges and universities, expressed opposition to concealed weapons, according to the study which was published in the Journal of American College Health. This issue of allowing people to carry concealed weapons at universities and colleges around the U. S. has been raised several times in recent years,† said Jagdish Khubchandani, who is a member of Ball State University. â€Å"This is in spite of the fact that almost four of every five students are not in favor of allowing guns on campus. † In a statement published July 12, 2013 The National Rifle Association (NRA) roposed that the Second Amendment is a far more important portion of the Bill of Rights, suggesting that far more emphasis should be placed on it than even the First Amendment.This belief is behind the NRA attempts the legislature and the courts to be able to expand rights to gun owners while weakening the rights of gun opponents. The NRA views the resistance to concealed carry as a type of reverse discrimination which would prevent people who should have the ability to protect themselves from that right. The passage of concealed carry laws has been a focus of the NRA. Their tance is that while individual rights are important, nothing is important as the right to carry. Another group that is pro- concealed carry law would be a student organization known as Students for Concealed Carry on Campus.T hese students believe that if they were allowed to carry a concealed weapon on them that they would feel safer walking alone at night or even if someone they did not know approached them. They support the individual's right to defend themselves in times of personal Jeopardy. For every group that supports concealed carry, there is a group of people who do not. One such group is The National Order of Fraternal Police. A group of law enforcement officers, this group strongly believes that they should be the only ones to have a handgun. Police officers have been highly trained regarding the necessity of the use of a weapon.These officers are entrusted by their cities and communities to utilize firearms only when essential for public safety. In a profession which is not only dangerous, but also unpredictable, the concern that the officer will not know whom is armed and who is not could raise the intensity surrounding altercations, and holds the potential for concealed carriers to get inv olved in situations they are ot prepared for. Further Research Currently the most interesting sources were the ones about the facts about concealed carry and the attempt to pass the gun control law after the school massacre fail.One of the issues emerging was whether or not college campuses should allow students to carry a concealed weapon on them while at school. Some students thought that they should be able to carry a gun so that they would feel safer when walking alone at night; while others weren't keen on the idea of carrying a weapon. Most people would agree with having a concealed weapon, even though you ave to complete a certain amount of training hours and live fire hours to carry a concealed carry rather than be for it since there has been so many school shootings and even shootings in my town not too long ago.

Seneca Falls Declaration of Sentiments 1848

Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott wrote the Declaration of Sentiments for the Seneca Falls Womens Rights Convention (1848) in upstate New York, deliberately modeling it on the 1776 Declaration of Independence. The Declaration of Sentiments was read by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, then each paragraph was read, discussed, and sometimes slightly modified during the first day of the Convention when only women had been invited and the few men present anyway were asked to be silent. The women decided to put off the vote for the following day, and permit men to vote on the final Declaration on that day. It was adopted unanimously in the morning session of day 2, July 20. The Convention also discussed a series of resolutions on day 1 and voted on them on day 2. Whats in the Declaration of Sentiments? The following summarizes the points of the full text. 1. The first paragraphs begin with quotes that resonate with the Declaration of Independence. When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one portion of the family of man to assume among the people of the earth a position different from that which they have hitherto occupied ... a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes that impel them to such a course. 2. The second paragraph also resonates with the 1776 document, adding women to men.  The text begins: We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men and women are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that to secure these rights governments are instituted, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.  Just as the Declaration of Independence asserted the right to change or throw off unjust government, so does the Declaration of Sentiments. 3. Mens history of repeated injuries and usurpations in order to an absolute tyranny over women is asserted, and the intention to lay out the evidence is also included. 4. Men have not permitted women to vote. 5. Women are subject to laws they have no voice in making. 6. Women are denied rights given to the most ignorant and degraded men. 7. Beyond denying women a voice in legislation, men have oppressed women further. 8. A woman, when married, has no legal existence, in the eye of the law, civilly dead. 9. A man may take from a woman any property or wages. 10.  A woman can be compelled by a husband to obey, and thus made to commit crimes. 11.  Marriage laws deprive women of guardianship of children upon divorce. 12. A single woman is taxed if she owns property. 13. Women are not able to enter most of the more profitable employments and also avenues to wealth and distinction such as in theology, medicine, and law. 14. She cannot obtain a thorough education because no colleges admit women. 15. The Church alleges Apostolic authority for her exclusion from the ministry and also with some exceptions, from any public participation in the affairs of the Church. 16.  Men and women are held to different moral standards. 17. Men claim the authority over women as if they are God, instead of honoring womens consciences. 18. Men destroy womens self-confidence and self-respect. 19. Because of all this social and religious degradation and disfranchisement of one-half the people of this country, the women signing demand immediate admission to all the rights and privileges which belong to them as citizens of the United States. 20. Those signing the Declaration declare their intention to work towards that equality and inclusion, and call for further conventions. The section on voting was the most contentious, but it did pass, especially after Frederick Douglass, who was in attendance, supported it. Criticism The whole document and event was met at the time with widespread disgust and mocking in the press, for even calling for womens equality and rights.  The mention of women voting and the criticism of the Church were especially targets of derision. The Declaration has been criticized for its lack of mention of those who were enslaved (male and female), for omitting mention of Native women (and men), and for the elitist sentiment expressed in point 6.

Is Body Image Affected By Mass Media Essay - 2192 Words

Throughout the twentieth century, mass media has helped shape American culture; however, not only culture is affected. Media has begun to change the way people view themselves and others. Body image is a significant part of a woman’s self-perception: it affects her self-esteem, her confidence, and her health practices. For generations since women gained the right to vote, media has taken an ever-tightening hold on body image. Women have been convinced for decades that in order to be a part of this male-dominated culture, they have to be able to do everything a man can do while wearing gorgeous clothes, staying slim, and doing other things to make themselves â€Å"beautiful.† Mass media has an immense impact on body image, and this relationship†¦show more content†¦When its power is not abused, mass media is a wonderful luxury, but when it falls into the hands of the egotistically motivated, it becomes a weapon of mass destruction, vaporizing any chance of allow ing a woman to choose her own opinion about her body – or anything else for that matter. Outside influences have a tremendous impact on body image. These influences range from family and friends to culture and religious beliefs. Parents’ roles in a child’s life tend to be the most influential – especially mothers’ roles in the lives of their daughters. When a woman has been influenced by the culture and media that surround her, she falls into a continuous cycle of weight gain and loss. Upon seeing their mothers struggle with body image and weight problems, it is implanted into young girls’ minds that the cycle is normal. Some mothers even recognize the problem that they have and apply this knowledge to â€Å"try to protect their daughters from falling into the same trap and try to push them further to be thin† (Almoayed 1). This constant push and pull causes a thorough confusion in the child’s mind and creates an informational vacuum in which all knowledge pertaining to weight or diet will be meshed and melded together. The influence of parents on a young girl, however, is oftentimes overpowered by the influence of her peers. Women and girls are not thoroughly encouraged to make bonds with other females, while men are bonded by political andShow MoreRelatedThe Between Media And Body Image1348 Words   |  6 Pagesconstructed by the society and by the media. But women are affected that kind of construction. Mass media give narrow definition about the standard of beauty. Delis noticed this massage everywhere, especially in the media, â€Å"I am so affected by Glamour magazine and Vogue and all that; I’m looking at all these beautiful women. They’re thin. I want to be just as beautiful. I want to be just as thin. Because that is what guys like† (Hesse-Biber, Sharlene Nagy 12). The media representation of the thin idealRead MoreMedia And Ethnic Identity Influencing Self Image1233 Words   |  5 PagesMass media plays a very huge role in the way in which young black women and adolescents see themselves. 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In today s existence, images in the media has huge influenceRead MoreMedia s Influence On Children889 Words   |  4 PagesMass media is the media a person sees or hears in magazines, television, radio, etc. Media images is what a person sees with their own eyes. A person can see media images through social media, the computer, television, magazines and anything else a person can see with their eyes. Gender socialization is how a person sees media. A person in any gender contributes how they see media through their expectations and attitudes. Media plays a large roll through a pe rson’s life. Media affects the wayRead MoreBeauty Culture: An Examination the Effects Media Has on Society 1440 Words   |  6 Pagesobsession with beauty is not without cause. As stated in Body Image: Understanding Body Dissatisfaction in Men, Women, and Children, â€Å"In affluent Western societies, slenderness is generally associated with happiness, success, youthfulness, and social acceptability. Being overweight is linked to laziness, lack of willpower, and being out of control.†(Grogan 325) Despite common misconceptions, body image affects all groups of people. Consequently, the image people have of themselves and the way that they reactRead More Body Image Essay1153 Words   |  5 Pagesthe image, along with the subtopics â€Å"Magic Moves that Work Your Whole Core,† â€Å"Superfoods for a Sexy Stomach,† and â€Å"4 Ab Mistakes Everyone Makes.† It is no secret that modern American culture gives great importance to body image, namely to h aving a â€Å"perfect† physique, although a vast majority of the population is far from attaining said physique. I struggled for years to â€Å"make peace† with my own body and obtain a positive body image, hence why I have chosen to research body image and the media, focusingRead MoreResearch Paper on the Effects of Mass Media on the Perfect Body Image1569 Words   |  7 PagesHow can you determine what body image should be? The desire for the perfect body has been prevalent throughout society for a vast majority of time. What makes teenage girls feel the need to strive for this â€Å"perfect body†? Some have asked, â€Å"†¦a rapidly growing body of research addresses the question of whether body perfect ideals in the mass media are a core risk factor for negative body image, particularly in women† (Dittmar, Helga) My hypothesis is â€Å"Does the media influence adolescent girl’s weight