American Intervention in Soviet-Afghan War Essay

During the Cold War, the United States set out to go after the Soviet Union by agreeing with Afghanistan and taking extraordinary measures to stop Soviet impact and socialist belief system. In 1979, the Soviet Union attacked Afghanistan trying to extend its impact in the Middle East with the nonattendance of American impact. Now exposed War the United States and Soviet Union were pretty much at the peak of their difficulty, so the U. S. accordingly chose to get included by strengthening Afghan’s essential insubordinate gathering, the mujahidin. The United States endangered country security by offering huge help to mujahidin progressives, and in doing so the U. S. helped them obstruct Soviet guideline over Afghanistan. There are a lot of reasons confirming America’s absence of prescience and reasonability, one being that the condition of the Soviet Union was not incredible as it might have been. One should mull over that the Soviet Union was at that point in an extreme decay when the United States started to mediate in Soviet-Afghan undertakings. Benjamin Frankel, a regarded author who composed an article for History in Dispute, depicted how there was a drawn out discussion in the Soviet Union on the subject of how to continue with socialist strategies (14). Furthermore, America previously communicated its firm stance strategy toward the USSR in an increasingly inconvenient manner. In 1983, President Ronald Reagan set up the Strategic Defense Initiative to ensure the U. S. from potential ballistic rocket assaults by the Soviet Union. Altogether, as the ABC-Clio database recommends in section ten of â€Å"Cold War, 1945-1991†, the USSR spent roughly $80 billion on the Soviet-Afghan War. The fall of the USSR was hurried by its grandiose spending on the superfluous reason. Like the financial issues in the Soviet Union, the United States’ activities concerning Soviet-Afghan undertakings delivered extraordinary weights upon the U. S. economy. The United States squandered a generous measure of cash so as to help mujahidin revolts so they could check their Soviet oppressors, yet got no pay consequently. As an obscure creator from Mount Holyoke College gauges in â€Å"Origins of the Taliban†, the United States lost about $3 billion just on financing these undercover operations. The mujahidin and Afghanistan in general gave little consequently. The mujahidin, for one, just utilized America for what it gave and disposed of the nation once exchanges were finished. Likewise, Afghanistan contained lacking regular assets contrasted with its Middle-Eastern partners. Notwithstanding this action’s negative effect on the U. S. economy, it was additionally unjustified by the United States’ disappointment in convincing Afghans to change over to its political perspectives. The United States didn't spread majority rules system or even hinder the Soviet Union’s socialist impact on Afghanistan. Rather than acting how it did, the United States ought to have permitted Afghanistan to develope itself and make sense of its own issues to a degree. One indication of movement in the nation happened in the mid-2000s when Afghanistan held its first presidential political decision. For instance, Canada has profited by having the international strategy of neutrality. Moving back to the mujahidin, Benjamin Frankel portrays it, expressing, â€Å"Once they assisted with pushing the Soviets out of Afghanistan, they directed their concentration toward the abhorred ‘infidel’ West and its ‘satanic’ pioneer, the United States† (16). Benjamin Frankel proceeded to talk about how the Afghans were aloof toward the message of majority rule government, while they previously hated the belief system of socialism (16). These reasons clarify why the two gatherings never became partners and part ways once the Soviets pulled back in 1989. At some point amidst the United States endeavoring to spread popular government in Afghanistan, the Jimmy Carter system passed a ban on wheat and corn against Russia as another endeavor to trouble the Soviet Union. The Russian Grain Embargo, sanctioned in 1980, had a negative money related effect on American ranchers. This demonstration was attracted up to respond the past continuous strains between the United States and Soviet Union which increased when the United States started to help the mujahidin in 1979. Regarding the matter of U. S. what's more, USSR exchange, delegate George McGovern expressed at a 1980 Senate hearing in passage ten on the Annals of American History database that horticultural produce took up 75% of their exchange. With this absence of exchange, the USSR and U. S. each profoundly endured. Because of the Russian Grain Embargo, costs on a bushel of wheat dropped 50? furthermore, costs for a bushel of corn dropped 30?. As McGovern later declares to the senate in his discourse in passage nineteen, anticipated numbers â€Å"do not think about the gigantic increment in cost of creation for crop year 1980 for ranchers, coupled by discouraged markets. † This demonstration, by implication related with rising strains likewise causing the U. S. to strengthen the mujahidin, made live hard for ranchers. The Russian Grain Embargo left an incredible blemish on agrarian culture in both the United States and the Soviet Union, yet moreso in the U. S. This announcement shows the incongruity behind the ban. The damage done to the USSR was considerable, however. One may state that the Russian Grain Embargo went with the firm stance strategy Reagan set forth toward the USSR, however this contention is refuted by the money related weights on America and the Soviet Union. Therefore in his discourse, George McGovern states in section twenty, â€Å"The U. S. omestic hit to the farming network can sensibly be closed to be more noteworthy than the one we are conveying, at any rate over the long haul and in any event in financial terms. † In addition, Russia was falling off a record low year for crop creation, further supporting this act’s injustification. Regardless of the way that the Russian Embargo Act was predominantly a weight to cultivate society, it likewise demonstrated or will have demonstrated to be a weight to other significant pieces of society. The Russian Grain Embargo likewise crushed both the United States and the Soviet Union in manners other than agronomically including regular residents. In passage eighteen McGovern insinuates his incredible measurable information, taking note of that American citizens made up for the obligation of the Russian Grain Embargo by paying an aggregate of $3. 8-5 million. The validity of the United States as a solid exchange accomplice soar because of the ban. The organization of previous President Jimmy Carter presumably didn't anticipate this result or even consider it. Another result of the demonstration was extended group butcher in Russia. Russians subsequently devoured awful or at times unsanitary meat due to the absence of U. S. meat shipments. Rather than burning through our time making superfluous approaches or embargoes or unfoundedly making a ground-breaking Afghan strong power, the Unites States ought to have taken advantage of other significant lucky breaks. For instance, during the period where the United States sent weapons to the mujahidin, Afghanistan’s neighboring nation Pakistan built up an atomic weapon program. This is unexpected on the grounds that constraining atomic weaponry in wherever was clearly expected to be a central worry of America, yet we didn't take care of business. Pakistan could have imparted atomic mysteries to its partner neighbors, hence imperiling American security. Benjamin Frankel expounded on the likelihood that Pakistan could in the end utilize their atomic weapons. All things considered, America would absolutely lament not investing in the issue. Prior to acting, we need to initially contemplate all ramifications †the advantages and disadvantages. Either the different pioneers of the United States from 1979 to 1989 didn't do this or they misevaluated. At the point when a nation is on a nevitable way to its destruction, going through a lot of cash to attempt to rush it is superfluous. Blocking exchange to that nation is inessential and imbecilic if all gatherings included are adversely influenced like on account of the Russian Grain Embargo. At long last, the Unites States and Soviet Union were troubled by their foolhardy methodologies; therefore, we ought to gain from their mix-ups and endeavor to fix any outstanding outcomes. La mentably, we may one day need to persevere through the repercussions of not making a move if a Middle Eastern nation sets off an atomic bomb.

Classroom Observation Free Essays

Homeroom Observation I. Setting a. Perusing class b. We will compose a custom exposition test on Homeroom Observation or then again any comparative point just for you Request Now 2 staff/around 17 understudies c. Littler class than expected and one of a couple of study halls that have an extra staff (paraprofessional) d. fourth grade (understudy works on second grade level for Reading) II. Kind of Task a. Free perusing/worksheet Antecedent Student is given an autonomous understanding undertaking. Conduct Disruption Consequences Least to most progressive system of student’s explicit conduct plan. Forerunner in detail When given an autonomous understanding task (following comparable gathering work task) understudy will become disappointed on account of the trouble of the task causing the maladaptive conduct portrayed Behavior in detail For this understudy problematic conduct is characterized as any event of getting out, prodding others, ridiculing, kicking his work area, and additionally shouting/hollering that meddles with his and his peers’ instructional time. Outcomes in detail This student’s maladaptive conduct of interruption will bring about results that extend from the least to most pecking order. This is explicitly redirection to task, verbal censure of up and coming outcomes, in class break away from most of the understudies (right now the understudy is as yet required to be chipping away at the autonomous errand), out of class break (observed by the paraprofessional), sent to the conduct expert alloted to this understudy. This last advance commonly brings about a call to the parent/gatekeeper clarifying the student’s maladaptive conduct. It likewise may bring about the prerequisite of a gathering of the relevant gatherings included (instructor, paraprofessional, and conduct master. Dwayne Williams03/29/2010 AntecedentsBehaviorConsequenceFunction Student is given an autonomous understanding errand. Interruption Least to most order of student’s explicit conduct plan. For Attention Peers Staff Step by step instructions to refer to Classroom Observation, Essays

CHEMISTRY - ALKENES AND AROMATICS, ELEMENTS OF THE P BLOCK, AND

CHEMISTRY - ALKENES AND AROMATICS, ELEMENTS OF THE P BLOCK, AND CHEMISTRY - ALKENES AND AROMATICS, ELEMENTS OF THE P BLOCK, AND SEPARATION, PURIFICATION AND â€" Coursework Example > 1710cm -1 COHQuestion three(a) Oxidation stateH3PO3 = 3 + 6 = 9H4P2O7 = (14 + 4) / 2 = 9 it is in the highest oxidation stateH5P3O10 = 8(b) According to Pauling’s second rule; Since not more than two electrons may occupy any given molecular orbital and when they occupy one orbital, the electrons spin must be paired and in opposite direction, this means that oxoacid forms a volatile acidQuestion fourStructure and properties of oxides of carbon, silicon and lead: Points to discuss: Physical properties of these oxidesChemical properties of these oxidesStructures Oxidation statesStability and existence of these structuresHybridizationPhysical properties: Formation of oxide ion is favored when oxygen combines with metals that have low ionization energy; to start with the oxides of carbon include carbon monoxide (CO) carbon dioxide (CO2) dicarbon monoxide (C2O) carbon trioxide (CO3). These oxides of carbon are colorless, odorless, carbon dioxide gas is detectable because it forms mist like cloud with clean water. Carbon is non-metal while silicon is a metalloid and lead is a metal, therefore metalloid oxides will form amphoteric oxides. Oxides of lead include lead II oxide, lead IV oxide, and lead VI oxide; PBO which is lead II oxide is a powerful oxidizing agent which is yellow in color and sometimes rhombic. Silicon oxides include silicon dioxide, remember silicon monoxide does not exist, physical properties include high melting point and boiling point but carbon dioxide and lead oxide have low melting point because they form a small discreet units and have weak attraction to each other because they are not purely ion, carbon dioxide forms a discreet molecule joined together by weak forces but silicon dioxide has three dimension net work and stable because it has no weak forces. Carbon dioxide and oxides of lead exist in gaseous form but oxide of silicon exists in solid form. Under physical properties, the structures of oxides of silicon form a three dimensi on network normally found in solid form unlike its counter part of carbon dioxide, this is because carbon dioxide forms a linear structure and this is the reason as to why carbon dioxide has low melting and boiling point. Silicon dioxide forms a trigonal planar structure with a lone pair, but has various crystal structures. Silicon monoxide does not exist, while oxide of lead forms a pyramidal structure. Chemical properties: Silicon oxide reacts with strong bases showing the acidic character of this oxide. Other oxides of carbon and lead will give acid; lead oxide is a powerful oxidizing agent. Lead oxide reacts with both acids and bases giving lead oxide amphoteric characterHybridization: Silicon dioxide since it exists as a solid with a three dimension figure that has a trigonal planar structure, its hybridization is SP3.note that there is no pi-pi bond in silicon dioxide, that is hybridization. Carbon dioxide has a linear structure and its hybridization is SP, oxides of lead ex ists in different structures but mostly pyramidal with several lone pairs depending with the oxide, its hybridization can be SP3 or dSP2.

Comprehensive Argument Analysis - 1273 Words

------------------------------------------------- Axia College Material Appendix E Critical Analysis Forms Fill out one form for each source. Source 1 Title and Citation: A U.S. Invasion of Iraq Is Not Justified | Zunes, Stephen. A U.S. Invasion of Iraq Is Not Justified. The Nation 275 (30 Sept. 2002): 11. Rpt. in Is Military Action Justified Against Nations Thought to Support Terrorism? Ed. James D. Torr. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 2003. At Issue. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 20 Mar. 2011. Document†¦show more content†¦| 10 | Does the author use moral reasoning? If not, explain how you determined this. | Yes. The author gives many moral reasons why he believes an invasion on Iraq would be wrong. | Source 2 Title and Citation: | Clinton, Bill. U.S. Military Strikes on Iraq Are Justified. The Middle East. Ed. William Dudley. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 2000. Opposing Viewpoints. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 20 Mar. 2011. Document URL http://ic.galegroup.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/ic/ovic/ViewpointsDetailsPage/ViewpointsDetailsWindow?displayGroupName=Viewpointsamp;prodId=OVICamp;action=eamp;windowstate=normalamp;catId=amp;documentId=GALE%7CEJ3010229223amp;mode=viewamp;userGroupName=uphoenixamp;jsid=bc801d7d98e999f2fa920a332c992f07 | 1 | Identify the principal issue presented by the source. | The principal issue presented by this source is that US military strikes on Iraq are justified. | 2 | Identify any examples of bias presented by the author. If none exist, explain how you determined this. | Bill Clinton exhibits his bias against Saddam Hussein when he says â€Å"There is no more clear example of this threat than Saddam Hussein’s Iraq. His regime threatens the safety of his people, the stability of his region, and the security of all the rest of us†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å" We have to defend our future from the predators of the 21st century. They feed on the free flow of information andShow MoreRelatedThe Sociological Aspects Of Hilter s A Social Context1594 Words   |  7 PagesIn this critical article review, an analysis of Kater’s (1981† article â€Å"Hitler in a Social Context† will examine the strengths and weaknesses of the sociological aspects of Hilter’s rise to power during the Third Reich. Kater’s motivation for writing this article is primarily based on the need form of comprehensive socio-historical or sociological evaluation of Hitler, which will define the charismatic effects of Hitler’s leadership in the rise of Nazi power. In a historiographical context, variousRead MoreSocial Revolutions in the Modern World by Theda Skocpol1092 Words   |  5 Pagesstructurally-based, comparative analysis of various social revolutions. 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Thus, financial reporting is a sensitive report that can drive the imageRead MoreMoral Reasoning And Ethical Decision Making1144 Words   |  5 Pagesuseful to them or others. However, this explanation does not provide reasons for existence of certain virtues in society. For example, explaining virtues in terms of utility means that the theory rejects religious morality. Basically, Hume refutes the argument morality is strictly voluntary. There are many cases where people act because of moral sentiments without any consideration of utility. In addition, setting rules regarding virtues eliminates the need to have moral choices. For instance, it can be

How Does Priestley Present Gerald As An Upper Class Man...

How does Priestley present Gerald as an upper-class man? An Inspector Calls is a play written in 1945 by J.B Priestly. It was set in 1912 where there were strong distinctions between the upper and lower classes. Therefore, to convey the socialist message, Priestly portrays characters from the upper class in an exposed manner. He definitely doesn’t hide any of their flaws. Gerald Croft is one of the main characters in the play that Priestly has done a great job at showing the thoughts of the upper class. Gerald Croft is an aristocrat; the son of ‘Lady Croft’. Aristocracy was social class considered the highest of that society. Therefore, he is above the Birlings socially. At the beginning of Act 1, Mr Birling told Gerald that his mum, ‘while she doesn’t object to my girl, feels you might have done better socially’. Mr Birling knows that his parents were not particularly impressed by the engagement ,which may be why they declined the invitation to the dinner, and he tries to impress him by saying how he might get a knighthood. Mr Birling sees Gerald as an asset for not only his company (as Gerald works at his father s company, Crofts Limited, which is both bigger and older than Mr Birling’s company) but an opportunity for him to climb higher in the social system. This attitude contrasts to Gerald’s attitude a bit because he was prepared to marry Sheila, despite her lower social position. 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Priestley is set in an industrial city, Brymley in 1912, just before the First World War. The Inspectors dealings with the Birling family cause some of the characters in the play to re-evaluate their position in society, whilst others remain unaffected. J.B.Priestley criticises middle class oppression of the working class by showing how the Birlings and Gerald Croft are involved in making a young working class girls life a misery. Act

Qwerty Free Essays

The Effect of Extreme Dependency on Computers| Extreme Dependency on Technology Technology, good or bad? Some say it’s great, but that is said by drug users about illegal substances as well. They are essentially one in the same; once you have used them and they become part of your life, you are never the same again. Once you have researched via computer, or found your way to an unfamiliar area with a gps, doing it the old way is never as easy or as foolproof as it once was. We will write a custom essay sample on Qwerty or any similar topic only for you Order Now These days, when you loose your phone or even have little reception, you worry; your pulse races, your palms sweat, and you perspire. This is not good. Something that used to make our lives easier now makes our lives harder. Most of us don’t even know how to use a map or to mail a letter anymore. The library, what’s that? If you go to a library, it’s probably to use the internet, not to read a book. The computer is a wonderful invention if you like moving fast. We can do everything a computer can, except it takes us much longer. Wall Street is a big blue and green blur of humming computers and screens, it almost seems to have a life of its own, it’s like an urban jungle. If that system crashes, our economy falls to the ground in flames as well. Books are written in months instead of years. School becomes a mad thrash to get everything typed, created, or turned in on time. What happened to good old paper and calculators? Calculators are a hot issue in my opinion. While they are wonderful little contraptions, our dependency on calculators is worrying. When I walk through that door into the calc room, my grade rests in the hands of a small shiny piece of blue plastic dotted with smooth yellow buttons and stuffed with four triple-A batteries. Compare me to a crack addict, honestly; without my Texas instruments calculator I’m as good as dead. Gps’s are amazing little gadgets. About the size of a slice of bread, they help you find your way like a personal tour guide perched on your dashboard. Maps might as well be carved in stone; they’re old news. Does a map tell you where the nearest taco bell is? Does it recalculate when you miss a turn? Unfortunately, no — Gps’s are a godsend for the directionally challenged. The subtle, warm feeling of accomplishment you get when you find your way around with a crumpled up paper map is likely gone for good, it’s a shame. Survival of the fittest, I guess. But when you run out of batteries, or your gps breaks; good luck finding your way. They are as addicting as anything else humankind has created. As I was browsing for a topic for my illustrative essay, something funny happened. I clicked my merry little way to Google. And within minutes, I had a topic, quite ironically, about dependency on computers. My initial thought on what to write about did not come about by careful thought and planning, it came about through Google and my horrid dependency on computers. Dependency on computers is unavoidable, unless you are Amish or a member of a tribe deep within the jungle. Computers have allowed us the monumental achievement of space travel, the wonder of deep sea submersibles, and the deadliness of heat seeking missiles. No doubt, great achievements not possible without computers. But for everyday activities like finding your way, doing mental math, or writing a paper, computers are a shortcut, they make life easier. We need to learn to do things with and without a computer. For example, I know many people who cannot do mental math to save their lives. At this point, technology is really part of us. Instead of having that knowledge of simple math to rely on, we build upon the base that calculators provide instead. More advanced math is not possible without that technology, though honestly we should be able to do it either way. Through this it’s much easier to screw things up; once you have become used to listening to music anywhere, anytime, through your ipod, it’s a downer to not have music. If your ipod breaks, it’s almost like quitting smoking. You MUST buy a new one, you can’t just stop listening. Cell phones are an utmost convenience. Nary a child or senior citizen lacks one, and they do everything from email to texting to taking pictures. How long until they come equipped with electric toothbrushes? If you’ve ever been in an accident or had car trouble, that cell phone is your lifeline, and there is no alternative. You cannot mail someone; and pay phones are nearly nonexistent. Without your phone, you get the jitters, you feel unsafe, and out of it. It happens to me on those days where I forget and leave it at home – I know 95% of the population is the same way. So obviously technology had done much good. Our quality of living has gone up substantially. But at the same time being perched up her in this greatly advanced society, on top of stacks of microchips and USB ports, it’s a lot easier to lose our footing and tumble back to earth. At some point, the infrastructure will crumble; everything needs an overhaul sooner or later. We would live in much more stable times if it were not for computers. On the same note, we would live in a much slower, less equipped world. Is his a good trade off? It depends on your outlook and opinion. There is no doubt technology can crash and burn, and there is no doubt that technology has simplified out lives. Hopefully we can stabilize it before something drastic happens and we are left moving at 1889 speed. Thus technology has made it a whole lot easier to do most things – and much easier to mess them up – a double-edged sword| Computer addiction  is a mental illness which causes the ex cessive use of  computers  to the extent that it interferes with daily life. Excessive use may explain problems in social interaction, mood, personality, work ethic, relationships, thought processes, or  sleep deprivation. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders does not include a diagnosis for such a disease. The term ? computer addiction? originated long before the Internet. Some people develop bad habits in their computer use that cause them significant problems in their lives. The types of behavior and negative consequences are similar to those of known addictive disorders. Contents  Ã‚  [hide]   * 1  Effects * 2  Origin of the term * 3  History * 4  See also * 5  References| ————————————————- [edit]Effects Excessive computer use may result in, or occur with: * Lack of social interaction. * Using the computer for pleasure, gratification, or relief from stress. * Feeling irritable and out of control or depressed when not using it. * Spending increasing amounts of time and money on hardware, software, magazines, and computer-related activities. Neglecting work, school, or family obligations. * Lying about the amount of time spent on computer activities. * Risking loss of career goals, educational objectives, and personal relationships. * Failing at repeated efforts to control computer use. * Never getting off the computer. A cause for many of the above-mentioned effects may be that computer games do not stimulate the release of neu rotransmitters responsible for feelings of satisfaction and relaxation, such as oxytocin and endorphin, in the same way that real world activities do. How to cite Qwerty, Papers

Multiverse Essay Example

Multiverse Paper Multiverse From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other uses, see Multiverse (disambiguation). Physical cosmology Universe  · Big Bang Age of the universe Timeline of the Big Bang Ultimate fate of the universe [show]Early universe [show]Expanding universe [show]Structure Formation [show]Components [show]Timeline [show]Experiments [show]Scientists v †¢ d †¢ e The multiverse (or meta-universe, metaverse) is the hypothetical set of multiple possible universes (including the historical universe we consistently experience) that together comprise everything that exists: the entirety of space, time, matter, and energy as well as the physical laws and constants that describe them. The term was coined in 1895 by the American philosopher and psychologist William James. [1] The various universes within the multiverse are sometimes called parallel universes. The structure of the multiverse, the nature of each universe within it and the relationship between the various constituent universes, depend on the specific multiverse hypothesis considered. Multiverses have been hypothesized in cosmology, physics, astronomy, religion, philosophy, transpersonal psychology and fiction, particularly in science fiction and fantasy. In these contexts, parallel universes are also called alternative universes, quantum universes, interpenetrating dimensions, parallel dimensions, parallel worlds, alternative realities, and alternative timelines, among others. We will write a custom essay sample on Multiverse specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Multiverse specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Multiverse specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Contents [hide] 1 Multiverse hypotheses in physics 1. 1 Tegmarks classification 1. 1. 1 Level I: Beyond our cosmological horizon 1. 1. 2 Level II: Universes with different physical constants 1. 1. 3 Level III: Many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics 1. 1. 4 Level IV: Ultimate Ensemble 1. 2 Cyclic theories 1. 3 M-theory 1. 4 Anthropic principle 1. 5 WMAP cold spot 1. 6 Criticisms 1. 6. 1 Non-scientific claims 1. 6. 2 Indirect Evidence 1. 6. 3 Occams Razor 2 Multiverse hypotheses in philosophy and logic 2. Modal realism 2. 2 Trans-world identity 2. 3 Fictional realism 3 Multiverse hypotheses in religion and spirituality 3. 1 Hinduism 3. 2 Islam 3. 3 Planes of existence 3. 4 Afterlife 3. 5 Eschatology 4 In popular culture 4. 1 Literature 4. 2 Film 4. 3 Television 4. 4 Other fictional uses 5 See also 6 References 6. 1 Notes 6. 2 Bibliography 7 External links [edit]Multiverse hypotheses in physics [edit]Tegmarks classification Cosmologist Max Tegmark has provided a taxonomy of uni verses beyond the familiar observable universe. The levels according to Tegmarks classification are arranged such that subsequent levels can be understood to encompass and expand upon previous levels, and they are briefly described below. [2][3] [edit]Level I: Beyond our cosmological horizon A generic prediction of chaotic inflation is an infinite ergodic universe, which, being infinite, must contain Hubble volumes realizing all initial conditions. Accordingly, an infinite universe will contain an infinite number of Hubble volumes, all having the same physical laws and physical constants. In regard to configurations such as the distribution of matter, almost all will differ from our Hubble volume. However, because there are infinitely many, far beyond the cosmological horizon, there will eventually be Hubble volumes with similar, and even identical, configurations. Tegmark estimates that an identical volume to ours should be about 1010115 meters away from us (a number larger than a googolplex). [4][5] [edit]Level II: Universes with different physical constants Bubble universes, every disk is a bubble universe (Universe 1 to Universe 6 are different bubbles, they have physical constants that are different from our universe), our universe is just one of the bubbles. In the chaotic inflation theory, a variant of the cosmic inflation theory, the multiverse as a whole is stretching and will continue doing so forever, but some regions of space stop stretching and form distinct bubbles, like gas pockets in a loaf of rising bread. Such bubbles are embryonic level I multiverse s. Linde and Vanchurin calculated the number of these universes to be on the scale of 1010107. [6] Different bubbles may experience different spontaneous symmetry breaking resulting in different properties such as different physical constants. [4] This level also includes John Archibald Wheelers oscillatory universe theory and Lee Smolins fecund universes theory. [edit]Level III: Many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics Hugh Everetts many-worlds interpretation (MWI) is one of several mainstream interpretations of quantum mechanics. In brief, one aspect of quantum echanics is that certain observations cannot be predicted absolutely. Instead, there is a range of possible observations each with a different probability. According to the MWI, each of these possible observations corresponds to a different universe. Suppose a die is thrown that contains 6 sides and that the result corresponds to a quantum mechanics observable. All 6 possible ways the die can fall correspond to 6 different universes. (More correctly, in MWI there is only a single universe but after the split into many worlds these cannot in general interact. [7] Tegmark argues that a level III multiverse does not contain more possibilities in the Hubble volume than a level I-II multiverse. In effect, all the different worlds created by splits in a level III multiverse with the same physical constants can be found in some Hubble volume in a level I multiverse. Tegmark writes that The only difference between Level I and Level III is where your doppelgangers reside. In Level I they live elsewhere in good old three-dimensional space. In Level III they live on another quantum branch in infinite-dimensional Hilbert space. Similarly, all level II bubble universes with different physical constants can in effect be found as worlds created by splits at the moment of spontaneous symmetry breaking in a level III multiverse. [4] Related to the many-worl ds idea are Richard Feynmans multiple histories interpretation and H. Dieter Zehs many-minds interpretation. [edit]Level IV: Ultimate Ensemble The Ultimate Ensemble hypothesis of Tegmark himself. This level considers equally real all universes that can be defined by mathematical structures. This also includes those having physical laws different from our observable universe. Tegmark writes that abstract mathematics is so general that any Theory Of Everything (TOE) that is definable in purely formal terms (independent of vague human terminology) is also a mathematical structure. For instance, a TOE involving a set of different types of entities (denoted by words, say) and relations between them (denoted by additional words) is nothing but what mathematicians call a set-theoretical model, and one can generally find a formal system that it is a model of. He argues this implies that any conceivable parallel universe theory can be described at Level IV and subsumes all other ensembles, therefore brings losure to the hierarchy of multiverses, and there cannot be say a Level V. [8] Jurgen Schmidhuber, however, says the set of mathematical structures is not even well-defined, and admits only universe representations describable by constructive mathematics, that is, computer programs. He explicitly includes universe representations describable by non-halting pro grams whose output bits converge after finite time, although the convergence time itself may not be predictable by a halting program, due to Kurt Godels limitations. 9][10][11] He also explicitly discusses the more restricted ensemble of quickly computable universes. Cyclic theories Main articles: Cyclic model and Oscillatory universe In several theories there is a series of infinite, self-sustaining cycles (for example: an eternity of Big Bang-Big crunches). [edit]M-theory See also: Brane cosmology and String theory landscape A multiverse of a somewhat different kind has been envisaged within the multi-dimensional extension of string theory known as M-theory, also known as Membrane Theory. 13] In M-theory our universe and others are created by collisions between p-branes in a space with 11 and 26 dimensions (the number of dimensions depends on the chirality of the observer);[14][15] each universe takes the form of a D-brane. [14][15] Objects in each universe are essentially confined to the D-brane of their universe, but may be able to interact with other universes via gravity, a force which is not restricted to D-branes. [16] This is unlike the universes in the quantum multiverse, but both concepts can operate at the same time. [edit]Anthropic p rinciple Main article: Anthropic principle The concept of other universes has been proposed to explain why our universe seems to be fine-tuned for conscious life as we experience it. If there were a large number (possibly infinite) of different physical laws (or fundamental constants) in as many universes, some of these would have laws that were suitable for stars, planets and life to exist. The weak anthropic principle could then be applied to conclude that we would only consciously exist in those universes which were finely-tuned for our conscious existence. Thus, while the probability might be extremely small that there is life in most of the universes, this scarcity of life-supporting universes does not imply intelligent design as the only explanation of our existence. [edit]WMAP cold spot Laura Mersini-Houghton claims that the WMAP cold spot may provide testable empirical evidence for a parallel universe within the multiverse. [edit]Criticisms [edit]Non-scientific claims Critics claim that many of these theories lack empirical testability, and without hard physical evidence are unfalsifiable; outside the methodology of scientific investigation to confirm or disprove. Reasons why such claims lack empirical evidence or testability according to most Multiverse theories is that other universes are in a different spacetime framework, so in principle they cannot be observed. [edit]Indirect Evidence The logical foundation of modern science is hypothetico-deductive logic which permits a theory to propose unobvservable entities if these help explain observable outcomes, either by theory based predictions (of future observations) or retroductionism (of already known observations). [17] [edit]Occams Razor See also: Kolmogorov complexity Critics argue that to postulate a practically infinite number of unobservable universes just to explain our own seems contrary to Occams razor. [18][19] Tegmark answers: A skeptic worries about all the information necessary to specify all those unseen worlds. But an entire ensemble is often much simpler than one of its members. This principle can be stated more formally using the notion of algorithmic information content. The algorithmic information content in a number is, roughly speaking, the length of the shortest computer program that will produce that number as output. For example, consider the set of all integers. Which is simpler, the whole set or just one number? Naively, you might think that a single number is simpler, but the entire set can be generated by quite a trivial computer program, whereas a single number can be hugely long. Therefore, the whole set is actually simpler. Similarly, the set of all solutions to Einsteins field equations is simpler than a specific solution. The former is described by a few equations, whereas the latter requires the specification of vast amounts of initial data on some hypersurface. The lesson is that complexity increases when we restrict our attention to one particular element in an ensemble, thereby losing the symmetry and simplicity that were inherent in the totality of all the elements taken together. In this sense, the higher-level multiverses are simpler. Going from our universe to the Level I multiverse eliminates the need to specify initial conditions, upgrading to Level II eliminates the need to specify physical constants, and the Level IV multiverse eliminates the need to specify anything at all. He continues A common feature of all four multiverse levels is that the simplest and arguably most elegant theory involves parallel universes by default. To deny the existence of those universes, one needs to complicate the theory by adding experimentally unsupported processes and ad hoc postulates: finite space, wave function collapse and ontological asymmetry. Our judgment therefore comes down to which we find more wasteful and inelegant: many worlds or man y words. Perhaps we will gradually get used to the weird ways of our cosmos and find its strangeness to be part of its charm. Multiverse hypotheses in philosophy and logic edit]Modal realism Possible worlds are a way of explaining probability, hypothetical statements and the like, and some philosophers such as David Lewis believe that all possible worlds exist, and are just as real as the actual world (a position known as modal realism). [20] [edit]Trans-world identity A metaphysical issue that crops up in multiverse schema that posit infinite identical copies of any given universe is that of the notion that there can be identical objects in different possible worlds. According to the counterpart theory of David Lewis, the objects should be regarded as similar rather than identical. 21][22] [edit]Fictional realism The view that because fictions exist, fictional characters exist as well. There are fictional entities, in the same sense as that in which, setting aside philosophical disputes, there are people, Mondays, numbers and planets. [23][24] [edit]Multiverse hypotheses in religion and spirituality Main a rticle: Multiverse (religion) [edit]Hinduism Main article: Hindu cosmology The concept of multiple universes is mentioned many times in Hindu Puranic literature, such as in the Bhagavata Purana: Because You are unlimited, neither the lords of heaven nor even You Yourself can ever reach the end of Your glories. The countless universes, each enveloped in its shell, are compelled by the wheel of time to wander within You, like particles of dust blowing about in the sky. The srutis, following their method of eliminating everything separate from the Supreme, become successful by revealing You as their final conclusion (Bhagavata Purana 10. 87. 41) [edit]Islam Main article: Islamic cosmology There are exactly seven verses in the Quran that specify that there are seven heavens. One verse says that each heaven or sky has its own order, possibly meaning laws of nature. Another verse says after mentioning the seven heavens and similar earths. So [Allah] decreed them as seven heavens (one above the other) in two days and revealed to each heaven its orders. And We [Allah] adorned the lowest heaven with lights, and protection. Such is the decree of the Exalted; the Knowledgeable. [Quran 41. 12] Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (1149–1209), in dealing with his conception of physics and the physical world in his Matalib, explores the notion of the existence of a multiverse in the context of his commentary on the Quranic verse, All praise belongs to God, Lord of the Worlds. He raises the question of whether the term worlds in this verse refers to multiple worlds within this single universe or cosmos, or to many other universes or a multiverse beyond this known universe. Al-Razi disagreed with the Aristotelian and Avicennian view of the impossibility of multiple universes. This disagreement arose from his affirmation of atomism, as advocated by the Ashari scho ol of Islamic theology, which entails the existence of vacant space in which the atoms move, combine and separate. 25] He argued that God has the power to fill the vacuum with an infinite number of universes. [26] [edit]Planes of existence Main article: Plane (esotericism) Certain religions and esoteric cosmologies propound the idea of a whole series of subtle emanated planes or worlds. [edit]Afterlife Many religions include an afterlife existence in realms, such as heavens and hells, which may be very different from the observable universe. [edit]Eschatology See also: End time Eschatological scenarios may include a new different world after the end time of the current one. For example, Hindu cosmology includes the idea of an infinite cycle of births and deaths and an infinite number of universes with each cycle lasting 8. 4 billion years. [27] Similar eschatological scenarios appear in other religions, in the form of belief in there being a new and different world after the end time of the current one. [edit]In popular culture This In popular culture section may contain minor or trivial references. Please reorganize this content to explain the subjects impact on popular culture rather than simply listing appearances, and remove trivial references. May 2010) See also: Parallel universe (fiction) and Fictional universe [edit]Literature The term Multiverse was notably used in 1962 by science fiction author Michael Moorcock, though not for the first time in literature, having previously been used by both William James in 1895 and John Cowper Powys in his 1955 novel The Brazen Head (p. 279). The author and editor Paul le Page Barnett, best known by the pseu donym John Grant, later used the term polycosmos for a similar concept binding together a number of his works. He formed the word from Greek morphemes where multiverse uses Latin. [28] Philip K. Dicks The Man in the High Castle Takes place in a parallel universe where the allies lost WWII. The novel follows several characters, one of whom travels to what is implied as an alternate universe for a short time. (our own) In the World of Tiers novels (1965) by Philip Jose Farmer, the background of the stories are set in a multiverse where godlike beings are able to create a number of pocket universes at their whim. Our own universe is part of this series, but interestingly its boundary appears to end at the edge of the solar system. In a 1971 short story All the Myriad Ways, author Larry Niven explores the psychological implications of Multiverse theory. The story somewhat erroneously postulates that since a split in the Multiverse is created at each decision point, the number of suicides would rise dramatically as people consider how the possibility of ending their lives would impact the many versions of the universe. The idea is that simply considering the act causes all possible outcomes to occur in somewhat equal proportion. While the story is highly entertaining, this notion is pure fiction, and is not supported by any significant theory of muitiple universes. The way in which Robert A. Heinlein used interlocking characters and settings in his novels have led to his worlds being described as a multiverse. [29] In C. S. Lewiss series The Chronicles of Narnia, multiple universes exist within a monotheistic, rather than a naturalistic framework. At the will of Aslan (who corresponds to the Christian God), the main characters enter different universes through various means, including a forest containing pools of water. A leap into any pool will take one into a universe with natural laws and even a structure differing from our own. (In Narnia, for instance, the world is not spherical, but flat, and the brave mouse Reepicheep travels to the end of it in order to enter Aslans Country. In Philip Pullmans trilogy His Dark Materials the lead characters enter parallel universes by using a knife to cut into the fabric of reality. The novel Timeline by Michael Crichton uses the multiverse theory as a mechanism for travel back to medieval times to research the Hundred Years War. A 2000 Dean Koontz Novel, From the Corner of His Eye, is based entirely around the belief in multiple realities. At least four characters in the book have special abilities based around the use of multiple realities. Stephen Kings Dark Tower series presupposes the idea of a multiverse, an infinity of infinities, all meeting at a central nexus point in space and time, the Dark Tower itself. The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy features the Whole Sort of General Mish-Mash, in which every possible universe is located at some point along the probability axis. The 2004 Andrew Crumey novel Mobius Dick uses Everetts Many Worlds theory as support for a plot involving both multiple histories (Britain as Fascist or Communist state) and multiple literatures (alternative versions of works by Thomas Mann). Crumey has done academic research on Walter Benjamin and the multiverse of Louis Auguste Blanqui. In the fictional series of Robert Jordans World of the Wheel of time, the main character Rand Al Thor at one time uses his One power to channel power through a Portal stone which causes him and his troupe to experience lives in various probability universes, which however always end with his death (he is a pivotal character in the series on account of the dark one). Both DC Comics and Marvel Comics have made extensive use of the multiverse concept, with DC adopting the notion (later adapted by Marvel) of numbering the many different versions of Earth presented, which culminated in the Crisis on Infinite Earths story arc of the 1980s, and its later sequels Infinite Crisis, 52 and Final Crisis. An example of Marvel using the multiverse concept is the Marvel Zombies series and the Ultimate line of comics which take place in an alternate universe. In the manga Katekyo Hitman Reborn! , the main antagonist of the future arc, Byakuran, is capable of moving between parallel universes, and he also manages to bring himself from one universe to another. [edit]Film In the 2001 Jet Li film, The One, Jet Lis character travels to several different universes to carry out his deadly deeds. Although not explicitly described as such in the film, the alternate reality experienced by the George Bailey and Clarence characters in the 1946 film Its a Wonderful Life may be interpreted as a parallel universe. The 2009 film Star Trek features the characters of Spock and Nero traveling backwards in time by means of a black hole, drastically altering the timeline. Though this is not a true alternate universe, it presents an altered history within our original universe. [edit]Television In the 2010 season of Lost a new flash sideways storyline seemed to show a parallel universe where the passengers of Oceanic Flight 815 land safely in Los Angeles and the island they originally crashed on is now underwater. The idea that it was a parallel universe arose from events in the previous season involving several main characters on the island that had traveled back in time to the year 1977. In the episodes leading up to the end of the 2009 season it was implied that detonating a hydrogen bomb within a pocket of electromagnetic energy could reset time and make it so Oceanic Flight 815 never crashed, which leads to the characters who are stuck in 1977 detonating the bomb in the final moments of the season finale. When the 2010 season opened with what appeared to be two different timelines, one where the plane never crashed and one where the characters that detonated the bomb are back to their original time yet still stuck on the island, it seemed to imply to the viewers that the bomb had created a parallel universe instead of just resetting the one they were in like they had thought it would. However, in the 2010 series finale, it is revealed that the bomb did not reset time or create a parallel universe. Instead the flash sideways world is actually a super flash forward set after all the events on the island that shows a spiritual gateway to the afterlife, created by the characters to find one another after they die and to allow themselves to let go of their physical lives before moving on, rather than an actual parallel universe in the physical sense. During the Android Arc in Dragon Ball Z, the shows main character, Son Goku dies from an incurable heart virus roughly two and a half years after killing Frieza and his father King Cold. Six months later, a pair of androids appear and kill all of the Z fighters (except for Son Gohan and infant Trunks). As a result of this divergent timeline, several key characters are not born. These characters are: Goten, Pan, Bra, Marron and Uub. Trunks, now nearly an adult, travels 20 years into the past where/when the main timeline viewers are familiar with exists. In the network movie Turtles Forever, the 2003 turtles meet their 1980s conterparts, claiming that they came from an alternate universe. It is later revealed that there is a multiverse of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles. The television show Sliders was based entirely on the possibility of parallel universes. In each episode the stars experienced an alternate universe through the use of a device that would create a portal through which to travel to those alternate realities. In the season 8 premiere of Family Guy, Stewie and Brian use an enhanced device to travel to different universes. They temporarily stay in a world that has not been influenced by Christianity, therefore the world being technologically head 1000 years, and a world where dogs are the dominant species before returning to their world. The Fox show Fringe explores an alternate universe as part of its series-wide plot. The show also touches on crossing over to the other side, the advancement of science and technology bringing two worlds together, as well as the possibility of two worlds colliding and bringing one of them to an end. Several storylines in the Star Trek and Doctor Who franchises have involved multiverses. Examples include: Mirror, Mirror (and sequels) in Star Trek: The Original Series; Parallels in Star Trek: The Next Generation; and Inferno, Rise of the Cybermen and Turn Left in Doctor Who. Stargate SG-1, Stargate Atlantis, and Stargate Universe also have episodes where people travel to different parallel universes and alternate timelines. Episodes include There but for the Grace of God, 2010, 2001, Moebius parts 1 and 2, Before I Sleep, Mackay and Mrs. Miller, The Last Man, Vegas and Time.

Facts About WW2

Facts About WW2 Free Online Research Papers I. The War Begins A. The Italian invasion of Ethiopia might be considered by some to be the starting point of WWII, but in the US perspective the war began in Asia. Even when the Germans re-occupied the Rhineland (territory given to France after WWI), Europe did not stir. In 1937, Japan launched a full-scale attack on China- attacking its 5 northern provinces. 1. This threatened US investments and other interests in the region as well as US access to several vital materials- especially rubber. 2. When President Roosevelt tried to rally public support for a US response (he proposed some kind of â€Å"quarantine† on Japan) his efforts fell flat- the public wanted nothing to do with it. 3. The depth of the US public commitment to isolation was revealed when, in December 1937, the Japanese bombed and sank a US gunboat (Panay) in broad daylight. The Japanese claimed it was an accident and the US public forgave them. B. Hitler began to make his move in 1938. In March, his forces swept into Austria and Hitler declared an â€Å"Anschluss†- Union with Austria. He then demanded that Czechoslovakia give him the Sudetenland- land on the German border that was occupied mainly by ethnic Germans. Czechoslovakia refused, but while it had a decent army, it was no match for the Germans without the support of others. Instead of offering support, Britain and France met with Hitler in Munich to discuss his demands. 1. This produced the famous â€Å"Munich Accords.† Britain and France agreed to support Hitler’s claims on the Sudetenland in return for a promise from Hitler that, â€Å"This is the last territorial claim I have to make in Europe.† 2. Neville Chamberlain, the British Prime Minister, went home to a hero’s welcome for having prevented war. C. Despite his promise of Munich, Hitler seized the remainder of Czechoslovakia in early 1939 and started to threaten Poland. After signing a non-aggression pact with Stalin in August 1939, Hitler invaded Poland (September). D. Having formal alliances with Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days after the invasion of Poland. III. Global War A. Following his victory in Poland, Hitler took little action for several months. Many believed that he was finished and would be satisfied with the territory he had conquered. 1. In the US, Roosevelt tried to get the Congress to allow the sale of arms to England and France, but he got only partial victory. Congress permitted the sale of weapons, but continued to demand that it be on a cash and carry basis- England and France would have to pay for anything they bought with cash. Isolationism was still strong in the US. B. Then, starting in November, Hitler invaded the West- taking Finland, Denmark, Norway and Belgium en route to Paris. Joined by Italy, the Axis powers took France on June 22 1940. C. With Britain now facing Germany virtually alone, attitudes in the US began to change. There was still a huge movement against entering the war, but Congress did approve measures that allowed the administration to begin making preparations for war. 1. In September, 1940, Congress approved the first peace-time military draft in American history. 2. By December, 1940, Britain was virtually bankrupt, and the Congress abandoned it’s â€Å"cash and carry† policy, implementing the new â€Å"lend-lease† policy. It allowed the President to â€Å"lend† or â€Å"lease† armaments to any nation deemed vital to the interests of the US. 3. The US became, in Roosevelt’s words, â€Å"the arsenal of democracy.† 4. Still, the US did not enter the war, and satisfied with an air campaign designed to weaken the British in preparation for an eventual invasion, Hitler turned his attention east. He invaded Russia, in violation of their mutual non-aggression pact, in June 1941. 5. Roosevelt, convinced that US entry into the war in Europe was inevitable, met with Winston Churchill, the British leader, in August, 1941 a. Meeting aboard the USS Augusta, Churchill agreed that if the US entered the war, England would support US plans for the post-war order. This agreement, called the Atlantic Charter declared that the aims of the war were not to capture anyone’s territory, but simply to restore democracy and freedom of the seas, to establish a post war trading system which focused on free and open trade, to develop post-war international institutions that would provide some kind of international security, and which would demand the disarmament of belligerent states. b. Roosevelt knew that the American people would very likely resist entry into the war if these points were not agreed upon beforehand. D. In Asia, the crisis in Europe emboldened Japan, which proceeded to invade Southeast Asia- taking territories controlled by the French and British there. 1. Roosevelt was finally able to get Congress to respond to Japanese aggression in Asia, but Congress would approve only an economic response. The US imposed an embargo on the sale of oil and steel to Japan first. Following the Japanese invasion of Indochina, which threatened US rubber supplies, the US froze all Japanese assets in American banks. 2. The German invasion of Russia was particularly important, because it made a Japanese assault on the Russian Far East less urgent. The Japanese realized that the US economic stranglehold posed a more immediate threat and moved up plans to attack the US directly. The original Japanese war plan was designed to avoid a direct fight with the US, as Japan believed it could achieve its objectives by seizing most of the territory from Russian Siberia to Indonesia, which was rich in natural resources that Japan needed. E. The US gradually became more intimately involved in the British war effort as both American merchant ships and warships came to be used to ship arms and to protect others’ ships that were carrying arms. This led inevitably to numerous cases of German submarine attacks on American shipping. F. Still, the US public wanted to stay out of the war. They would remain opposed to US entry into WWII until the Japanese Attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. 1. Japan was desperate. Her oil reserves were very low and would have run out by the end of 1942. 2. Though the US was expecting some kind of attack, it was expected more in the Philippines than elsewhere. 3. The attack on Pearl Harbor was a complete surprise. It left the US Pacific Fleet crippled, killing 2,403 people, destroying 8 battleships and most the the Pearl Harbor aircraft fleet. 4. Nevertheless, the attack on Pearl Harbor was a failure for the Japanese. a. They were unable to destroy the US aircraft carrier battle groups, which had gone to sea days before. b. They failed to destroy the huge oil reserves at Pearl, which would have take months to restore. c. The attack unified the American people, who immediately shifted from an isolationist to a war footing. 5. On the day following the attack, the US declared war on Japan. Germany declared war on the US shortly after and the war had become genuinely global in scope. II. The course of the war. A. By mid-1940, England faced Germany alone. Instead of invading England immediately, Hitler decided to try to break down British defenses through an air campaign. The Battle of Britain was a long, sustained bombing campaign of England’s major cities. 1. Most historians now regard this as one of Hitler’s great mistakes. The bombing of London in particular united the British and strengthened their determination to fight to the last man. More important, it gave the British time to build up their own air force and to otherwise prepare for war. 2. A second major mistake of Hitler was his decision to invade Russia while the air campaign against England was still underway. The invasion of Russia in June, 1941, seemed to be an initial success- Stalin’s army was still unprepared and many of his Generals were inexperienced. a. However, as virtually every European invader from the past has learned, a successful invasion of Russia has to be completed before the bitterly cold Russian winter set in. Though Hitler moved quickly into Russia, taking huge chunks of territory as quickly as he had in Poland and France, he was not able to capture Moscow before the winter hit. b. Hitler’s army in Russia made another huge mistake- it treated conquered Russians with great brutality. This was a mistake because by most accounts, most Russians in Western Russia especially were not fond of life under Stalin. Had the Germans treated them well, they may have joined the German side. Instead, they became violently anti-German and conducted guerilla attacks on German forces throughout the war. B. Upon entering the war, the first US goals were to win the War of the Atlantic and to drive the Axis powers out of North Africa and back into Europe. 1. Some 400 Allied ships were lost on the Atlantic to German attack in 1942, and that number increased to 900 in 1943. However, as US ship production achieved full operation, the US and British began to turn the tide in 1943. C. Winning WWII in Europe 1. North Africa Campaign (Operation Torch) a. Axis were winning North Africa (threat to Middle East oil and Suez Canal) b. Erwin Rommels Afrika Korps sent c. Oct. 1942 Bernard Montgomery stopped advance at El Alamein turning point d. Nov. 1942 Dwight Eisenhower landed in Morocco and Algeria e. First action U.S. battered at Kasserine Pass f. May 13, 1943 surrendered at Tunis (Tunisia) 2. FDR and Churchill met for Casablanca Conference (Jan. 1943) a. Unconditional surrender of Axis called for. b. Plan invasion of Italy through Sicily c. Priority to win control of Atlantic 3. Battle of the Atlantic a. By 1942, 500 Allied ships lost to Germans, 900 lost in 1942 b. Sonar, depth charges, air patrols, radar c. Atlantic won by May, 1943 d. After summer, 1944, no Allied vessels lost 4. Sicily and Italy (Operation Huskey) a. July 10, 1943 250,000 Am. and Br. troops landed in Sicily b. July 25, Mussolinis govt fell he was imprisoned c. Sicily fell in 38 days! d. Italy agreed to surrender and switch sides! -Pietro Badoglio new Premier e. Battle of Italy became a bloodbath 5. While Battle of Italy going on, Allies met again to discuss strategy a. Conferences in Washington and Moscow b. Planned an invasion of Europe c. Nov 23 Big Three (FDR, Churchill, Stalin), or Grand Alliance met at Teheran, Iran -Stalin wanted relief -Feb 1943 Russians stopped German advance at Stalingrad d. By end of 1943, events favoring Allies -Bombing of Germany -By Spring, 1944, Allies control the air e. Planned invasion of Western Europe (Eisenhower put in charge of Operation Overlord) 6. Operation Overlord a. After France fell, Nazis fortified coast, weak spot was Normandy b. Allies amassed 3m troops, tons of equipment in S. England c. Prior to invasion, Allies sent 20,000 paratroopers to clear the beaches (five sites Omaha, Utah, Gold, Juno, Sword) d. Feigned attack at Calais; Hitler fell for it! e. At dawn, June 6 (D-Day) Allied army hit the beaches at Normandy f. July 25, Allies broke out g. Aug. 15, second invasion force landed on the Med. side of France (Cannes) h. Aug 25, Paris liberated i. By Sept, Allies reached Germany (Siegfried Line); talk of being home for Christmas j. Germany launched V-1 and V-2 rockets at England k. By late fall, Allies slowed down 7. Battle of the Bulge (Ardennes Forest, near Belgium) a. Dec. 16, Germans lunched last counteroffensive b. Pushed a bulge of some 50 miles into Allied line (75 miles across) c. Slowed Allied advance by 6 weeks; Russians entered Germany from the east d. 77,000 Allied casualties, 100,000 German e. By late Jan, the bulge had been wiped out f. But, before invading, one more conference 8. Yalta Conference (Crimea) to plan for post-war Europe a. Feb. 4-11, 1945 b. Ensured that Soviets would stay in war vs. Japan c. Planned another world organization (United Nations) 9. Fall of Germany (1945) a. Hitler still believed he could win! b. March 6 bridge at Ramagen (Rhine) captured c. Took Ruhr Valley (heavy industry), dropped 245,000 tons of bombs on German cities (saturation bombing) d. Before victory complete, FDR died in Warm Springs, GA on April 12, 1945 e. April 16 Red Army launched massive attack on Berlin f. April 25 US and USSR armies met at the Elbe g. April 28 Mussolini captured with his mistress h. April 30 Hitler and Eva Braun commit suicide i. May 2 Berlin fell to Soviets j. May 7 Karl Doenitz (U-boat commander), Hitlers successor, surrendered to U.S. k. May 8 repeated with all Allied reps present (V-E Day) B. After defeating the Nazis, the Japanese still had to be defeated Research Papers on Facts About WW2Appeasement Policy Towards the Outbreak of World War 2Assess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeQuebec and CanadaGenetic Engineering19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraDefinition of Export QuotasMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductTwilight of the UAWWhere Wild and West MeetHip-Hop is Art

Francis Bacons Classic Essay of Studies

Francis Bacons Classic Essay of Studies Francis Bacon, the first major English essayist, comments forcefully in Of Studies on the value of reading, writing,  and learning. Notice Bacons reliance on parallel structures (in particular, tricolons) throughout this concise, aphoristic  essay. Then, compare the essay to Samuel Johnsons treatment of the same theme more than a century later in On Studies. The Life of Francis Bacon Francis Bacon is considered a Renaissance man. He worked as a lawyer and scientist throughout his life (1561-1626.)  Bacons most valuable work surrounded philosophical and Aristotelian concepts that supported the scientific method. Bacon served as an Attorney General as well as Lord Chancellor of England and received his education from several universities including Trinity College and the University of Cambridge. Bacon has written over 50 essays beginning with Of in the title and following the concept, such as Of Truth, Of Atheism and Of Discourse. A few interesting facts about Bacon: Bacons uncle was the Lord Keeper for Queen Elizabeth I. He helped symbolize the approvals for key documents.He is known as the father of the scientific method which was influenced by his own Baconian method based on reason and observation.There are rumors that Bacon was mostly attracted to men, due to his late marriage in life, amongst other ​theories. Interpretations of Of Study Bacons essay expresses several comments in Of Studies that can be interpreted as the following: Studying is helpful for better understanding and provides a knowledge that develops experience, as well as  a character that grows.Reading provides delight and fun, ornament and showing off, and the ability for success.Bacon expanded upon different fields of study depending on ones goal; for example, to master clarity with language, study poetry. Of Studies Excerpt by Francis Bacon* Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. Their chief use for delight is in privateness and retiring; for ornament, is in discourse; and for ability, is in the judgment and disposition of business. For expert men can execute, and perhaps judge of particulars, one by one; but the general counsels, and the plots and marshalling of affairs, come best from those that are learned. To spend too much time in studies is sloth; to use them too much for ornament, is affectation; to make judgment wholly by their rules, is the humor of a scholar. They perfect nature, and are perfected by experience: for natural abilities are like natural plants, that need pruning, by study; and studies themselves do give forth directions too much at large, except they be bounded in by experience. Crafty men condemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them; for they teach not their own use; but that is a wisdom without them, and above them, won by observation. Read not to contradict and confute; nor to believe and take for granted; nor to find talk and discourse; but to weigh and consider. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested; that is, some books are to be read only in parts; others to be read, but not curiously; and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and attention. Some books also may be read by deputy, and extracts made of them by others; but that would be only in the less important arguments, and the meaner sort of books, else distilled books are like common distilled waters, flashy things. Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man. And therefore, if a man write little, he had need have a great memory; if he confer little, he had need have a present wit: and if he read little, he had need have much cunning, to seem to know that he doth not. Histories make men wise; poets witty; the mathematics subtle; natural philosophy deep; moral grave; logic and rhetoric a ble to contend. Abeunt studia in mores [Studies pass into and influence manners]. Nay, there is no stone or impediment in the wit but may be wrought out by fit studies; like as diseases of the body may have appropriate exercises. Bowling is good for the stone and reins; shooting for the lungs and breast; gentle walking for the stomach; riding for the head; and the like. So if a man’s wit be wandering, let him study the mathematics; for in demonstrations, if his wit be called away never so little, he must begin again. If his wit be not apt to distinguish or find differences, let him study the Schoolmen; for they are cymini sectores [splitters of hairs]. If he be not apt to beat over matters, and to call up one thing to prove and illustrate another, let him study the lawyers’ cases. So every defect of the mind may have a special receipt. * Bacon published three editions of his essays (in 1597, 1612, and 1625) and the last two were marked by the addition of more essays. In many cases, they became expanded works from earlier editions. This is the best-known  version of the essay Of Studies, taken from the 1625 edition of  Essays or Counsels, Civil and Moral. Below, for the sake of comparison, is the version from the first edition (1597). Studies serve for pastimes, for ornaments, for abilities; their chief use for pastimes is in privateness and retiring; for ornaments in discourse; and for ability in judgment; for expert men can execute, but learned men are more fit to judge and censure. To spend too much time in them is sloth; to use them too much for ornament is affectation; to make judgment wholly by their rules is the humor of a scholar; they perfect nature, and are themselves perfected by experience; crafty men contemn them, wise men use them, simple men admire them; for they teach not their use, but that there is a wisdom without them and above them won by observation. Read not to contradict nor to believe, but to weigh and consider. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested: that is, some are to be read only in parts, others to be read but curiously, and some few to be read wholly with diligence and attention. Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready, and writing an exact man; therefore, if a man write little, he had need of a great memory; if he confer little, he had need of a present wit; and if he read little, he had need have much cunning to seem to know that he doth not know. Histories make wise men; poets witty; the mathematics subtle; natural philosophy deep; moral grave; logic and rhetoric able to contend.

How am I prepared to contribute to Pepperdine's mission and community Essay

How am I prepared to contribute to Pepperdine's mission and community of faith, learning, and service - Essay Example Starting from my school I have always been obedient to my religion and faith and have took all the aspects of life along with my strong faith. I have strived for education all my life and have come to the conclusion that one can never stop learning. I can contribute to the mission of Pepperdine university by using my skills to bring about a change in the society along with my faith. With my strong beliefs in religion I believe that I can take both my faith and education together at the same time. Throughout my life I have undergone many instances in which I had to act as a leader and this has given me experience when leading individuals. I believe that I can lead from the front and can strive for education if enrolled in the Pepperdine University. By getting enrolled in the University not only would I be able to commit myself to the mission of Pepperdine but would also be able to learn more. The excellent curriculum of Pepperdine University suits the needs of every student who wants to learn. I being a struggling student always dreamt of studying in a reputable institute. By getting enrolled in the Pepperdine University I can be able to learn and experience more which I can share around with people and make them aware about different things. With the help of the excellence provided by Pepperdine University I would be able to excel in my studies and polish my talent so that it does not come to a waste.

Public Administration and business management Research Paper

Public Administration and business management - Research Paper Example They are involved in the business of making policies and rules and regulations through which they manage the private and the public sector. Businesses have to ensure that they abide by the policies set by the public administrators in order to ensure that they do not cross the line and fall in the category of anti-social organizations (Denhardt, 2011, p.51). Business management even involves the facet of managing people but they can only control behavior of those people that are working within the organizations and set policies to govern these individuals (Denhardt, 2009, p.5). Those students who are involved in the study of public management learn about managing the macro level of the common population and those individuals who are enrolled in business management courses are involved in the learning of how to manage people at a micro level. Another reason due to which business management cannot be referred to as public administration is that the rules of business management are obtai ned from the policies and guidelines created by the people who are related to the field of public

Functionalism and Machine Aesthetic of Modern Architecture

Functionalism and Machine Aesthetic of Modern Architecture Functionalism in Architecture was a movement during the late 19th century and early 20th century was a product of one American architect Louis Henri Sullivan who coined the term form follows function. It was Distinct to have exposed architecture of the existence of ornamentation and therefore aesthetics so that a structure simply expressed its purpose or function. Both in the United States and in Europe, functionalism and machine aesthetics became existent due to the development of the era. During the 1920s and early 1930s in the United States, there was a growing machine-driven culture. The machines influence on art and architecture reflected the machines explosion as a valuable form of aesthetic. Both Functionalism and machine aesthetics held its own influence in modern architecture. The arrival of the machine was to have such revolutionary significance that the following years can legitimately be termed the Machine Age. Among the great number of cultural changes engendered by this new era was the installation of a machine aesthetic in the fields of architecture and design. This was of central importance to the Modern Movement as it provided a means by which its practitioners could engage with what they regarded as the spirit of the age. The machine aesthetic can be distinguished in the work of each major figure of the Modernist pantheon; it therefore conditioned the entire range of Modernist activity. By utilizing these aspects, the ornamentation and unnecessary forms of designs were obliterated and instead replaced by a plainer but functional look. Despite the growing movement of functionalism and machine aesthetics during the early 20th century, there still lie the differences and comparisons between the utilizations, views, and ideas about them from America and Europe. The difference of the two places somehow manifested various approaches towards the topic. The machine was valued for its service. Its aesthetic was promoted by those who saw a beauty in the machine a beauty in appearance and function. The machine aesthetic was assumed by all sorts of objects. The look of the machine was not universally celebrated, yet it was widespread nonetheless Despite this consistency, the reasons why individual Modernists employed the aesthetic varied greatly, and to conclude that they did so only to evoke the current zeitgeist would hardly seem satisfactory. Instead, the aim of this essay is to analyse functionalism and the several uses made of the machine aesthetic in order to determine why it was so central to Modernist theory and practice. Since the particular character of the aesthetic varied according to the nature of the interest in it (e.g. political, economic), the reasons for its use are fundamental to any understanding of Modernism. Firstly, the idea that Modernism embraced the machine aesthetic in order to give concrete form to the spirit of the age, though not the sole motivation behind Modernist movement is valid in itself and deserves to be expounded. The Industrial Revolution precipitated a series of immense changes which can be understood to have genuinely transformed the world. These include industrialisation, the rise of the metropolis, an accompanying decline in ruralise, and rapid technological progress. In being plundered for their natural resources, even Third World countries felt the impact of the new era. For many these changes threatened to create an environment that was both alien and hostile to humanity and nature. In the cultural sphere, the nineteenth-century design reformers John Ruskin and William Morris attacked machine-production for discouragement the craft skills and individuality of the worker. Since the machine took both tradition and individual attempt, it would become impossible for the artist or craftsman to take pride in their work, and the consumer, in turn, would suffer the spiritual disadvantages of no longer living in an environment that had been lovingly crafted. As a neutralizer, Ruskin, Morris and others proposed a return to traditional craft processes and sources of inspiration that were primarily medieval. In other sectors, this reactionary measure was felt to be unrealistically traditionalist. Since the machine was, as Ruskin and Morris had argued, incompetent at matching traditional craft processes and designs, those who recognised that the machine was an beyond doubt reality were aware of the need to evolve a new aesthetic that it was suited to. This would re-establish a high standard of quality in design and ensure that designed goods were adjusted to the age, rather than being hopelessly revivalist. One such figure was Adolph Loos, whose essay Ornament and Crime (1908) argued that applying decoration to a designed product was both inefficient and criminal, because eventually it resulted in the utilization of the craftsman: If I pay as much for a smooth box as for a decorated one, the difference in labour belongs to the worker. Instead, the new aesthetic was to be derived from the new processes of mass production. The result was a simple, essentialist style that was based on geometry (especially the straight line and the right angle3). Geometry became a model, not only because geometrical forms were theoretically easier for the machine to execute, but also because of overtones that Plato, amongst others, had invested it with. In Platos philosophy, geometrical forms were beautiful because they were elements of the eternal and absolute world of ideas that existed beyond material reality. The most concerted attempt to articulate this style was given in an exhibition on Modern Architecture at the Museume of Modern Art in 1932. The International Style: Architecture Since 1922 accompanied the exhibition. Historian Henry-Russell Hitchcock and critic Philip Johnson outlined the principles of the International style: The idea of style as the frame of potential growth, rather than as a fixed and crushing mould, has developed with the recognition of underlying principles such as architects discern in the great styles of the past. The principles are few and broad. . . . There is, first, a new conception of architecture as volume rather than mass. Secondly, regularity rather than axial symmetry serves as the chief means of ordering design. These two principles, with a third proscribing arbitrary applied decoration, mark the productions of the international style.4 Advances in construction techniques and materials allowed for a shift in structural support. Whereas walls were once weight-bearing, and thus massive, support was now given by skeletal infrastuctures. This change provided greater flexibility in window placement; once nothing more than holes cut in a wall, they could now be located virtually anywhere. Thus, proponents of the International style, the architectural equivalent of machine purity, moved windows away from walls centres, lest they suggest traditional construction. Armed with these new possibilities, asymmetrical designs were encouraged, as function in most types of contemporary building is more directly expressed in asymmetrical forms. Ideally, structures were not to be arbitrarily asymmetrical, but it was assumed that the needs of residents and the purposes of different spaces in the buildings would not produce symmetrical designs in fact, arbitrary asymmetry would be a decorative device, and thus an anathema to the Internationalists. Machine purity was a reaction against the ornamentation of previous decades and even the Moderns. Honesty in use and materials was sought functions should not be concealed beneath a covering, and items shouldnt be presented as something they were not. Simplicity and sterility championed the pure white of the hospital and lab. Stucco was an ideal material, as it provided for unbroken, continuous surfaces. Walls were skins, stripped down and allowing for a maximum of interior space. These interior spaces were to be designed individually, matching the needs of the resident, to provide for the amelioration and development of the functions of living.6 Rooms were to be determined by function, and the movement between rooms was to stress the unity and continuity of the whole volume inside a building.7 Book shelves and living plants were the best decorative devices in the home. This appealed to Modernists, whose works and writings revealed a desire to exceed the chaos of temporary solutions and preoccupation with styles that had characterised nineteenth- century design. The aim of Modernism was to achieve the ideal solutions to each design problem in works that would be style less, timeless and possess the same purity and clarity as geometry. Given the widespread belief that the machine symbolised the new century, it was perhaps inevitable that certain Modernists should embrace it entirely for its own sake purely as a metaphor, and with no concern for its practical applications. To some extent at least, this tends to be the case for most canonical Modernists, but this approach is exemplified by the Italian Futurist movement. As this brief analysis indicates, Futurism was primarily a literary and artistic movement. It was characteristic of its paradoxical nature that a movement initiated as a response to the changing environment should possess no means of expression in the art form that most directly conditioned the environment architecture. This was the case until 1914, five years after the publication of the first Manifesto, when Marinetti was finally able to welcome Antonio Sant Elia into the ranks. Sant Elia recognised the metropolis as the environment of the new age, and accordingly pioneered designs that were replete with intimations of the machine aesthetic. His perspectives for La Città   Nuova (1914) emphasise the geometry and verticality of his vision by juxtaposing stepped-back sections with sheer verticals. The interaction of diagonals and verticals this produces invests his works with the same energy and dynamism to be found in exemplary Futurist paintings. In addition, his buildings are frequently surmounted by features resembling industrial chimneys or radio masts (e.g. Casa gradinata con ascensori, 1914), thus making perhaps slightly picturesque use of an iconography derived from machines. Futurisms interest in the machine aesthetic arose from a naà ¯ve and romantic celebration of the machine for its qualities of energy and dynamism. The machine was therefore valued exclusively for the expressive potential it offered. Since they failed to grasp its practical aspects the Futurists neglected to adapt their aesthetic to technological limitations. For this reason Sant Elias designs remained on the drawing board. A deeper engagement with the realities of the machine was demonstrated by those who embraced the concept of functionalism. This idea played a significant role in most forms of Modernist design and theory. The central contention was that the form of an object should be dictated by its function. The Bauhaus, for example, aimed to originate the design of an object from its natural functions and relationships,11 so that they could be used effectively and were rationally related to each other. Of course, the pursuit of functionalism complemented the Modernists aim to arrive at ideal design solutions unless objects fulfilled their purpose they could barely be ideal. This led to the notion that a designed object could be beautiful if, and only if, it functioned perfectly. Function therefore replaced appearance as the prime principle of aesthetic quality. Artistic elaboration was eschewed in favour of clear form that both expressed its purpose and ensured that this purpose was satisfied. Henry-Russell Hitchcock and Philip Johnson, in their discussion of European functionalist architects (i.e. canonical Modernists), wrote that, If a building provides adequately, completely and without compromise for its purpose, it is then a good building, regardless of its appearance.12 Explanation of this somewhat radical view was found in the machine. Since the machines appearance was derived entirely from its function it was both morally and economically admirable, which made it beautiful. Karl Ewalds writing The Beauty of Machines (1925-6) contained the saying, A good modern machine is an object of the highest aesthetic value we are aware of that.13 For evidence of this the Modernists looked to the USA, where an unselfconscious functionalism had been put into practice by pioneers like Samuel Colt and, in particular, Henry Ford. Ford brought the concept of standardisation to his car plant, with results that were seen as almost astonishing. His moving meeting line system, which involved specialised stages of fabrication and identical parts, had enabled him to dramatically increase car production. His success was such that industrialists and manufacturers across the world were adopting these methods. Theoretically, their goods were now readily available and continually depreciating in price, even as profits soared. Paul Greenhalgh has observed that Modernists recognised the need to embrace technology for these reasons of economy and availability. It was the means by which Modernism could be promoted worldwide. In addition, the standardisation advocated by Ford would facilitate rapid construction and maintenance.14 Therefore, the example of Ford and others encouraged the Modernists to view the machine as the absolute ideal of functionalism. This can be confirmed by reference to Le Corbusier. Much of Le Corbusiers manifesto Vers une architecture (1923) is dedicated to promoting the architectural virtues of the machine. His famous declaration, The house is a machine for living in,15 often misunderstood, meant that the guiding principle for architects should be to make the house as well suited to its purpose as was a machine. This reiterated the argument that functionalism was more important than appearance. In order to progress, he believed, it was necessary for architects to abandon the notion of traditional styles and decorative effects: Architecture has nothing to do with the various styles [They are] sometimes pretty, though not always; and never anything more.16 this implies that he saw the aesthetic, not as just another style, but as the very substance of architecture. Instead, he drew parallels between architecture and the Engineers Aesthetic, arguing that engineers were to be praised for their use of functionalism and mathematical order. As a consequence, architect s were encouraged to emulate engineers and adopt these principles in order to attain harmony and logic in their designs. To reinforce this argument the illustrations of Vers une architecture celebrated the functional and architectural unity of Canadian grain stores, ships, aeroplanes and automobiles. From a present day perspective his principles are better illuminated by his architecture, since these illustrations (e.g. the Caproni Triple hydroplane) seem rather old. The Maison Dom-Ino (1915) was an early example of his Engineers Aesthetic: three identical planes are suspended above each other by steel columns, a method of construction that frees the walls of their load-bearing purpose, and allows his concept of the free faà §ade to be introduced. An external staircase communicates between each level, and its location permits an unprecedented space and clarity in the plan. The components were all to be standardised and pre-fabricated, which would allow for rapid construction. This house was therefore a product of Le Corbusiers intention to apply the principles of mechanical mass production to domestic architecture. However, a substantial body of criticism (e.g. Greenhalgh, Sparke) has argued that this functionalism of Modernist theory was not based in reality. The machine aesthetic remained just that, as few of the designs were capable of being standardised. For example, the Grand Comfort chair by Le Corbusier and Charlotte Perriand was neither functional nor standardised. It required no less than eighteen welds and three materials, making it expensive and capable of production only by craftsmanship. Le Corbusiers pavilion LEsprit Nouveau featured door handles supposedly derived from car or aeroplane handles. These were not standardised but had to be made individually. At the Bauhaus, Marianne Brandts tea service (1928/30) embodies the machine aesthetic with its geometrical, angular forms, but, again, these features made it unsuited to machine production. For this reason, virtually no products of Modernism were mass-produced, at least until the style was modified and practised on an international level in what became known as the International Style. For the pioneer phase, mass production remained a metaphor that could not yet be emulated.17 A further dimension which has not yet been discussed is the political function of the machine aesthetic. This was hinted at in Loos belief that it improved the domination of the worker, but here the importance was on the labour-saving potential of the machine. Loos celebrated the aesthetic because, theoretically, it reduced the hours of effort required of the worker by avoiding unnecessary ornament. This line of reasoning even occurs in the theories of the politically unsure Le Corbusier, whose Freehold Maisonettes of 1922 used mechanical applications and good organisation derived from machines to reduce the need for human labour, and thus alleviate the workloads of servants.18 It did not necessarily follow in either case, however, that the machine could serve as an instrument for social liberation. This possibility was not fully explored until the influence of Modernism had spread and produced a diversity of practitioners. To the increasingly machine-orientated Bauhaus Moholy-Nagy imparted his belief that the machine was inextricably linked with socialism because it was an absolute. He wrote: Before the machine, everyone is equal I can use it, so can you . . . There is no tradition in technology, no consciousness of class or standing. Everybody can be the machines master or slave.19 This belief was widespread amongst Modernists, with Theo Van Doesburg being another notable exponent. Van Doesburg praised the machine as a medium of social liberation, and denied that handicraft possessed this capability, since handicraft, under the supremacy of materialism,20 reduced men to the level of machines. But as Charles Jencks has observed, Van Doesburgs enthusiasm for the machine went beyond its labour-saving potential, it was also based upon its universalising, abstract quality.21 In Jencks outline, the machines impersonality enforces equality between its users, which in art would lead to the universal and the abstract. The result would be the realisation of a collective style that was universally valid and comprehensible, based as it was upon the abstract forms of the machine. Paul Greenhalgh suggests that such an internationalism was central to Modernists theory and was an inevitable condition of their quest for a universal human consciousness.22 In order to achieve this, national boundaries had to be disposed of, as well as those between disciplines (such as fine art and design) and political classes. Greenhalgh confirms that the abstract, geometrical aesthetic appealed to Modernists because it could be used as a common language through which different nationalities could arrive at uniform solutions, thereby dissolving national boundaries. In its exclusion per se of language, abstraction was the aesthetic which enabled the ethic, internationalism, to be realised.23 Though he does not use the term, the aesthetic Greenhalgh refers to is that of the machine, since it is derived from and (theoretically) tailored for machine production. I would therefore argue that Modernists associated the aesthetic with internationalism, not only because of its abstract quality, but also because its origins in the machine imbued it with the universal quality that Moholy-Nagy and Van Doesburg recognised in this source. The practical use of the machine aesthetics political function is best illustrated by the Russian Constructivist movement. It is perhaps surprising that an aesthetic originating from the machine the foundation of capitalism could flourish in the political climate following the Communist revolution. Loos idea of the machine as labour-saving device was, of course, central in resolving this dilemma, as was the social liberation and classlessness revealed by Van Doesburg and Moholy-Nagy. Also instrumental, no doubt, was the fact that, in this era, Russia was still largely a rural, peasant country possessing no heavy industry. The negative aspects of the machine would therefore have been less obvious than the myths of its glorious effects. In this climate of rural poverty and political fervour, the machine seemed capable of transforming society, and the aesthetic became the perfect metaphor for revolution and nation-wide progress. Since this made the aesthetic an invaluable resource for Communist propaganda, many of the leading designers were commissioned to create works that mythologized the revolution. Significantly, this situation did not only involve the government manipulating design to its own ends; many of the artists and designers were equally committed to the idea that they could serve the new society. The Constructivist movement was so named because its members saw it as their task to construct the environment for a new society in the same way that engineers constructed bridges and so on.25 Proletkult promoted the unity of science, industry, and art: Vladimir Tatlin, for example, believed design was linked to engineering, and saw the designer as an anonymous worker building for society. Tatlins Monument to the Third International (1919-20) reflects this ethos. This projection for a 400m tall tower (only a scaled-down model was built) clearly represents the union of art and construction its sculptural form of two intertwining spirals and a soaring diagonal component is rendered in a lattice construction suggestive of engineering. As well as resembling a machine, the tower actually functioned as one: it featured four transparent volumes that rotated at different speeds (yearly, monthly, daily and hourly). These were intended to house government offices for legislation, administration, information and cinematic projection. It should be pointed out that none of these reasons for interest in the machine aesthetic were mutually exclusive, and individual Modernists did not adhere to it for any single reason. Each partook, to some extent, of most of them. The enthusiasm of the European Functionalists also involved the political interest observed in Constructivism. At the same time, an element of the Futurists romantic fascination can be detected in the thinking of Le Corbusier, the Bauhaus, and all those for whom mass production remained out of reach. In conclusion, as case after case demonstrates, the Modernists enthusiasm for the machine aesthetic continued to be of an ideological rather than a practical nature. The machine was embraced as an idea by designers who failed to grasp the realities of mass production. Since their aesthetic was therefore inspired by the machine but not adapted to it, in many cases this actually impeded its realisation. This is highlighted by the examples of Futurism, Constructivism and even aspects of the Bauhaus, where numerous schemes could not be put into practice. However, the importance of the machine aesthetic within Modernism should not be underestimated; it was practised so widely, indeed constituted an International Style, precisely because it was deemed to be the ideal and most logical way of realising the central tenets upon which Modernism was founded. These included truth, internationalism, function, atonement with the age, and so on. The belief that the aesthetic was universally valid is reflected by the great variety of uses to which it was applied, such as Utopian, political, economic etc. For this reason it is no exaggeration to say that, for the Modernists, it was not a question of aesthetics at all, but of a Machine Ethic.